Teaching techniques
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Multiple Intelligences

The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University. Here is a discussion of the eight different intelligences Dr. Gardner proposes and their relationship to the ESL / EFL classroom. Each explanation is followed by lesson plans or exercises which can be used in class.

Verbal / Linguistic

Explanation and understanding through the use of words.

This is the most common means of teaching. In the most traditional sense, the teacher teaches and the students learn. However, this can also be turned around and students can help each other understand concepts. While teaching to other types of intelligences is extremely important, this type of teaching focuses on using language and will continue to play the primary role in learning English.

Example Lesson Plans

(re)Introducing Phrasal Verbs to ESL Students

Comparative and Superlative Forms

Countable and Uncountable Nouns - Noun Quantifiers

Reading - Using Context

Visual / Spatial

Explanation and comprehension through the use of pictures, graphs, maps, etc.

This type of learning gives students visual clues to help them remember language. In my opinion, the use of visual, spatial and situational clues is probably the reason learning a language in an English speaking country (Canada, USA, England, etc.) is the most effective way to learn English.

Example Lesson Plans

Business Lesson Describing Trends

Using Colored Pens Drawing in the Classroom - Expressions

Finish the Alphabet - Adjective Recognition

Vocabulary Charts

Body / Kinesthetic

Ability to use the body to express ideas, accomplish tasks, create moods, etc.

This type of learning combines physical actions with linguistic responses and are very helpful for tying language to actions. In other words, repeating "I'd like to pay by credit card." in a dialogue is much less effective than having a student act out a role-play in which he pulls out his wallet and says, "I'd like to pay by credit card."

Example Lesson Plans

Lego Building Blocks

Young Learner's Games for ESL Classes - Simon Says

Telephone English

Interpersonal

Ability to get along with others, work with others to accomplish tasks.

Group learning is based on interpersonal skills. Not only do students learn while speaking to others in an "authentic" setting, they develop English speaking skills while reacting to others. Obviously, not all learners have excellent interpersonal skills. For this reason, group work needs to balanced with other activities.

Example Lesson Plans

Conversation Lesson: Multinationals - Help or Hindrance?

Creating a New Society

Guilty - Fun Classroom Conversation Game

Let's Do Tourism

Logical / Mathematical

Use of logic and mathematical models to represent and work with ideas.

Grammar analysis falls into this type of learning style. Many teachers feel that English teaching syllabi are too loaded towards grammar analysis which has little to do with communicative ability. Nonetheless, using a balanced approach, grammar analysis has it's place in the classroom. Unfortunately, because of certain standardized teaching practices, this type of teaching sometimes tends to dominate the classroom.

Example Lesson Plans

Match-up!

English Grammar Review

Different Uses of "Like"

Conditional Statements - Reviewing the First and Second Conditional

Musical

Ability to recognize and communicate using melody, rhythm, and harmony.

Intrapersonal

Learning through self-knowledge leading to understanding of motives, goals, strengths and weaknesses.

This intelligence is essential for long-term English learning. Students who are aware of these types of issues will be able to deal with underlying issues that can improve or hamper English usage.

Example Lesson Plans

Setting ESL Objectives

English Learning Goals Quiz

Environmental

Ability to recognize elements of and learn from the natural world around us.

Six types of task for TBL

This is the second in a series of four articles which will explore how to integrate a task-based approach into a typical textbook to maximise learning opportunities for your learners and to save teacher preparation time.

Criteria for identifying tasks for TBL

Six types of task for TBL

From priming tasks and target tasks to language focus and grammar

Making time for tasks and still covering the syllabus

In this article we look at different types of task, and see which kinds are most often used in textbooks. I also suggest ways of adjusting them so that they stimulate more opportunities for meaning-focused interaction, and encourage learners to give longer responses. Finally I show how a graded set of tasks can be developed on a theme.

Identifying task-like activities

In my first article Criteria for identifying tasks for TBL, we looked at six questions that gave us criteria to help us identify tasks and ‘upgrade' potential task-like activities into tasks. So now we can identify activities in a textbook unit that could become tasks and form the basis of a task cycle with;

Pre-task activities,

Task - Planning - Report cycle,

Post-task activities as illustrated in the activity Planning a class night out.

However, tasks tend to come in various disguises. Some textbooks contain quite a few task-like activities, but very few use the word ‘task’ to describe them. They often come under section headings like: Speak out! Listening challenge; Think … then compare ideas; Reach a decision; With a partner… In groups… It’s your turn… Questions and answers... Discuss ... Tell your partner… Writing… Reading or even under Grammar or Vocabulary…

For example, in ‘Total English’, a text-book for beginners, the activity: ‘Who is your favourite 20th Century icon? Tell your partner about the person.’ comes at the end of a Grammar section on ‘was / were’ which follows a reading activity.

There are several ways to turn this into a more rewarding task – as illustrated in Criteria for identifying tasks for TBL and you can also build up a graded set of tasks around this theme - as illustrated below.

Three types of task

Activities like the following generally have the potential to become effective tasks:

Listing and/or brainstorming

You can list people, places, things, actions, reasons, everyday problems, things to do in various circumstances etc.

Examples:

(1) In pairs, agree on a list of four or five people who were famous in the 20th century and give at least one reason for including each person; Can you remember your partner’s busiest day?

(2) On your own, make a list of all the things he/she did. Then check with your partner. Were there any things you forgot?

Ordering and sorting

This can be sequencing, ranking, or classifying.

Examples:

(3) In pairs, look at your list of famous people. Which people are most likely to remain popular and become 20th century icons? Rank them from most popular to least popular, and be prepared to justify your order to another pair.

(4) Look at the four pictures. They are mixed up. Work in pairs. Put the four pictures in a sequence so that they tell a story. Prepare to tell your story to another pair.

Matching

You can match captions / texts / recorded extracts to pictures; short notes or headlines to longer texts, e.g. news items.

Examples:

(5) Read the texts – each is about a famous person but the person is not named - and look at the photos. Match each text to a photo. Then talk to your partner, and say how you were able to match them. Prepare to tell the class how you did it.

(6) Read the four headlines A to D. Match two pieces of information (given in 1-8 below) to each headline. Explain to your partner how you did this. What clues did you find? Did you both use the same clues?

Do you have any tasks like these in your textbooks? Sometimes textbooks use Listing, Ordering and Matching activities at the beginnings of units, to introduce or revise useful words and phrases to prepare for the main topics. The outcomes are usually clear (e.g. a completed list, a set of matched information). But although they give valuable exposure to relevant topic-based language in the form of reading texts or recordings, they rarely stimulate much learner interaction as they stand.

Stimulating more interaction

All the examples I have given above are based on activities from real text books, but in each case I have added a further step or two to stimulate additional meaning-focused language use.

In 1 and 3 learners are asked to give reasons for or justify their decision

In 2, 5 and 6 they do the tasks individually then explain to their partner how they did them

In 3, 4 and 5 they are asked to prepare to explain how they did the task or tell their story to another pair or to the whole class.

Three more type tasks

Comparing: finding similarities and differences

Comparison tasks can be based on two quite similar texts or pictures (a classic example is ‘Spot the Differences’) or places or events etc that learners have experience of. Learners can also compare their own work with that of another learner or another pair or group.

Examples:

Compare your list of possible 20th century icons with your partner’s list. Did you have any people in common? Tell each other why you chose them. How many reasons did you both think of? Finally, combine your two lists, but keep it to five people.

Tell your picture story to another pair and listen to theirs. Compare stories – make a list of the main similarities and differences.

You will by now have noticed that many of these tasks carry on the same themes as in previous tasks. It is possible to build up ‘a set of tasks’ on the same theme, each one arising out of the previous one. This is an excellent way to build learner’s confidence – once they are familiar with the basic vocabulary for the topic, they can then do a range of activities recycling the topic language and using it for different purposes in a set of tasks.

Problem-solving

Text-books often contain activities based on common problems – pollution, relationships, noisy neighbours and so on. But sometimes problem-solving tasks are over too quickly – learners agree on the first solution that comes to mind, using minimal language, e.g. ‘Noisy neighbours? OK – so call police’. The instructions for the town centre traffic problem in the example below incorporate six or seven ways of generating richer interaction. Which of these ways might you use with your classes?

Example:

Think of a town centre where there is too much traffic. In twos, think of three alternative solutions to this problem. List the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative. Then decide which alternative would be the cheapest one, the most innovative one, the most environmentally friendly one. Report your decisions to another pair / group / the class, and discuss with them which solution would be the best one to put forward to the local government.

More complex tasks like comparing and problem solving sometimes involve processes found in simpler tasks, like listing – see previous examples. The task above – problem-solving - involves listing and quite a lot of comparing and evaluating.

Sharing personal experiences and story telling

Activities where learners are asked to recount their personal experiences and tell stories are valuable because they give learners a chance to speak for longer and in a more sustained way. And it is something we often do in real-life. However, as we saw from the ‘Grandparents’ activity in Criteria for identifying tasks for TBL, the instructions for activities where learners are encouraged to relate things from their personal lives are often rather vague and open-ended. In order to encourage richer interaction, we usually need to add a clear goal, make instructions more precise, and give clear completion points. See Criteria for identifying tasks for TBL which gives several ways to adjust activities like these.

Summary

So far we have identified and commented on six types of task that sometimes appear in textbooks or that can be adapted from task-like activities. We have seen that a set of tasks can be built up around one topic. We have looked at ways of stimulating richer learner interaction and giving more opportunities for genuine meaning-focused language use and maximising learner responses.

Other activities like quizzes, questionnaires and projects can also generate rich interaction if set up in such a way as to maximise learner participation. Tasks can also be based on reading and listening texts. For three examples of task-based lessons such as these you can download see http://www.willis-elt.co.uk/taskbased.html

In my next article, I will show how we can exploit text-book material to help structure a task sequence, incorporating Pre-task activities, a task-cycle, leading on to language focus and form focused work.

What is TBL?

How often do we as teachers ask our students to do something in class which they would do in everyday life using their own language? Probably not often enough.

If we can make language in the classroom meaningful therefore memorable, students can process language which is being learned or recycled more naturally.

Task-based learning offers the student an opportunity to do exactly this. The primary focus of classroom activity is the task and language is the instrument which the students use to complete it. The task is an activity in which students use language to achieve a specific outcome. The activity reflects real life and learners focus on meaning, they are free to use any language they want. Playing a game, solving a problem or sharing information or experiences, can all be considered as relevant and authentic tasks. In TBL an activity in which students are given a list of words to use cannot be considered as a genuine task. Nor can a normal role play if it does not contain a problem-solving element or where students are not given a goal to reach. In many role plays students simply act out their restricted role. For instance, a role play where students have to act out roles as company directors but must come to an agreement or find the right solution within the given time limit can be considered a genuine task in TBL.

In the task-based lessons included below our aim is to create a need to learn and use language. The tasks will generate their own language and create an opportunity for language acquisition (Krashen*). If we can take the focus away from form and structures we can develop our students’ ability to do things in English. That is not to say that there will be no attention paid to accuracy, work on language is included in each task and feedback and language focus have their places in the lesson plans. We feel that teachers have a responsibility to enrich their students’ language when they see it is necessary but students should be given the opportunity to use English in the classroom as they use their own languages in everyday life.

How can I use TBL in the classroom?

Most of the task-based lessons in this section are what Scrivener** classifies as authentic and follow the task structure proposed by Willis and Willis***.

Each task will be organized in the following way:

Pre-task activity an introduction to topic and task

Task cycle: Task > Planning > Report

Language Focus and Feedback

A balance should be kept between fluency, which is what the task provides, and accuracy, which is provided by task feedback.

A traditional model for the organization of language lessons, both in the classroom and in course-books, has long been the PPP approach (presentation, practice, production). With this model individual language items (for example, the past continuous) are presented by the teacher, then practised in the form of spoken and written exercises (often pattern drills), and then used by the learners in less controlled speaking or writing activities. Although the grammar point presented at the beginning of this procedure may well fit neatly into a grammatical syllabus, a frequent criticism of this approach is the apparent arbitrariness of the selected grammar point, which may or may not meet the linguistic needs of the learners, and the fact that the production stage is often based on a rather inauthentic emphasis on the chosen structure.

An alternative to the PPP model is the Test-Teach-Test approach (TTT), in which the production stage comes first and the learners are "thrown in at the deep end" and required to perform a particular task (a role play, for example). This is followed by the teacher dealing with some of the grammatical or lexical problems that arose in the first stage and the learners then being required either to perform the initial task again or to perform a similar task. The language presented in the ‘teach’ stage can be predicted if the initial production task is carefully chosen but there is a danger of randomness in this model.

Jane Willis (1996), in her book ‘A Framework for Task-Based Learning’, outlines a third model for organizing lessons. While this is not a radical departure from TTT, it does present a model that is based on sound theoretical foundations and one which takes account of the need for authentic communication. Task-based learning (TBL) is typically based on three stages. The first of these is the pre-task stage, during which the teacher introduces and defines the topic and the learners engage in activities that either help them to recall words and phrases that will be useful during the performance of the main task or to learn new words and phrases that are essential to the task. This stage is followed by what Willis calls the "task cycle". Here the learners perform the task (typically a reading or listening exercise or a problem-solving exercise) in pairs or small groups. They then prepare a report for the whole class on how they did the task and what conclusions they reached. Finally, they present their findings to the class in spoken or written form. The final stage is the language focus stage, during which specific language features from the task and highlighted and worked on. Feedback on the learners’ performance at the reporting stage may also be appropriate at this point.

The main advantages of TBL are that language is used for a genuine purpose meaning that real communication should take place, and that at the stage where the learners are preparing their report for the whole class, they are forced to consider language form in general rather than concentrating on a single form (as in the PPP model). Whereas the aim of the PPP model is to lead from accuracy to fluency, the aim of TBL is to integrate all four skills and to move from fluency to accuracy plus fluency. The range of tasks available (reading texts, listening texts, problem-solving, role-plays, questionnaires, etc) offers a great deal of flexibility in this model and should lead to more motivating activities for the learners.

Learners who are used to a more traditional approach based on a grammatical syllabus may find it difficult to come to terms with the apparent randomness of TBL, but if TBL is integrated with a systematic approach to grammar and lexis, the outcome can be a comprehensive, all-round approach that can be adapted to meet the needs of all learners.

Tasks: Getting to know your centre

The object of the following two tasks is for students to use English to:

Find out what resources are available to them and how they can use their resource room.

Meet and talk to each of the teachers in their centre.

To do these tasks you will require the PDF worksheets at the bottom of the page.

Task 1: Getting to know your resources

Level: Pre-intermediate and above

It is assumed in this lesson that your school has the following student resources; books (graded readers), video, magazines and Internet. Don’t worry if it doesn’t, the lesson can be adjusted accordingly.

Pre-task preparation: One of the tasks is a video exercise which involves viewing a movie clip with the sound turned off. This can be any movie depending on availability, but the clip has to involve a conversation between two people.

Pre-task activity: In pairs students discuss the following questions:

Do you use English outside the classroom?

How?

What ways can you practise English outside the classroom?

Stage one - Running dictation

Put the text from worksheet one on the wall either inside or outside the classroom. Organize your students into pairs. One student will then go to the text, read the text and then go back to her partner and relay the information to her. The partner who stays at the desk writes this information. When teams have finished check for accuracy. You can make this competitive should you wish.

Stage two

In pairs students then read the Getting To Know Your Resources task sheet (worksheet two). Check any problem vocabulary at this stage. This worksheet can be adapted according to the resource room at your school.

Stage three

Depending on how the resources are organized in your centre, students then go, in pairs, to the resource room or wherever the resources are kept and complete the tasks on the task sheet.

Stage four

Working with a different partner students now compare and share their experience.

Stage five - Feedback

Having monitored the activity and the final stage, use this opportunity to make comments on your students’ performance. This may take form of a correction slot on errors or pronunciation, providing a self-correction slot.

Task 2 - Getting to know your teachers

Level: Pre-intermediate and above

Students may need at least a week to do this activity, depending on the availability of the teachers in your centre

Pre-task activity: In pairs students talk about an English teacher they have had.

What was her name?

Where was she from?

How old was she?

Do you remember any of her lessons?

What was your favourite activity in her class?

Stage one

Using the Getting To Know Your Teachers task sheet (worksheet three) and the Interview Questions (worksheet four) students write the questions for the questionnaire they are going to use to interview the teachers.

Stage two

To set up the activity students then interview you and record the information.

Stage three

Depending on which teachers are free at this time they can then go and interview other teachers and record the information. You may wish to bring other teachers into your class to be interviewed or alternatively give your students a week or so to complete the task, interviewing teachers before or after class, or whenever they come to the centre.

Stage four

Working with a different partner students compare their answers and experiences then decide on their final answers on the superlative questions.

Stage five

Feedback and reflection. Allow time for students to express their opinions and experiences of the activity. Provide any feedback you feel is necessary.

Further activities

The Get To Know Your Resources task sheet could be turned into a school competition entry form. Possible prizes could include a video or some readers.

References

*Krashen, S. (1996). The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom. Prentice Hall

**Scrivener, J. (2005). Learning Teaching. Macmillan.

Anchor Point:bottom

***Willis, J. & Willis, D. (eds.) (1996). Challenge and Change in Language Teaching. Macmillan (now out of print).

Note from editor: Jane and Dave Willis have recently published another book (see below)

Willis, D. & Willis, J. (2007), Doing Task-based Teaching. Oxford University Press

They have also set up a website which offers articles on task-based teaching and a number of lesson plans: http://www.willis-elt.co.uk/

COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

Not a highly structured method of teaching. Rather a broad assembly of ideas from a range of sources which have come to be accepted as 'good practice' by many contemporary teachers.

Origins of Approach

In 1960's and 70's foreign language learning was widely extended with the establishment of comprehensive schools. Led to the teaching of a foreign language to virtually all children. Created pressure for a change in teaching methods and curriculi to suit the needs of non-traditional groups of learners. Recognition of inadequacy of traditional grammar/translation methods and also of 'structural' methods with emphasis on meaningless pattern drills and repetition.

New syllabuses took into account needs of different pupils. Traditional academic syllabuses had assumed learner's goal was in-depth mastery of target language. But for less academic pupil a more immediate 'pay-off' was necessary, in terms of usefulness for practical purposes.

Communicative Method

1     Focuses on language as a medium of communication. Recognises that all communication has a social purpose - learner has something to say or find out.

2     Communication embraces a whole spectrum of functions (e.g. seeking information/ apologising/ expressing likes and dislikes, etc) and notions (e.g. apologising for being late / asking where the nearest post office is).

3     New syllabuses based on communicative method offered some communicative ability from early stage.

Graded Objectives in Modern Languages - movement which flourished in 1970's and 80's - raised pupils' motivation through short-term objectives and through teaching language appropriate to a range of relevant topics and situations (e.g. shopping/ hobbies/ exchanges).

4     Hitherto languages were taught in a vacuum - language for the sake of language / passing exams - rather than language for true communication.

Professor Dodson distinguishes between language as a 'medium' level communication and as a 'message' level communication, ex.

1) Young lady teacher is teaching Yr 7  pupils to say how old they are ( 'tu as quel age?'. ). They are merely practising the pattern in the foreign language, for the sole purpose of mastering the construction - teacher actually knows the age of the class - pupils also know that the teacher knows their age. According to professor Carl J Dodson, they are all performing at 'medium' level, ie. practising how to say it in the language but with no added purpose.

2) Suddenly, a curious member of the class raises his hand and asks the young lady teacher 'tu as quel age?'. This is language being used at a totally different and higher level, ie 'message' level ( pupil doesn't know the teacher's age, but actually uses the construction practised at the 'medium' level for a specific purpose, namely that of finding out the teacher's age!

One has to practise language at 'medium' level first in order to be able to exercise it at 'message' level. The problem is that a great number of teachers never used to go beyond 'medium' level and use the language for true purposes of sending and receiving 'messages'. They were teaching pupils 'about' the language, about its patterns and rules, rather than using it actively for real purposes!

Prior to National Curriculum, teaching was left almost totally at 'medium' level. Very little scope to test true communicative ability or to use the language spontaneously.

5     Classroom activities maximise opportunities for learners to use target language in a communicative way for meaningful activities. Emphasis on meaning (messages they are creating or task they are completing) rather than form (correctness of language and language structure) - as in first language acquisition.

6     Use of target language as normal medium for classroom management and instruction - reflects naturalistic language acquisition.

7     Communicative approach is much more pupil-orientated, because dictated by pupils' needs and interests.

8 Accent is on functional/ usable language. Learners should be able to go to foreign country, prepared for reality they encounter there. Need to be able to cope / survive in a variety of everyday situations.

9 Classroom should provide opportunities for rehearsal of real-life situations and provide opportunity for real communication. Emphasis on creative role-plays/ simulations/ surveys/ projects/ playlets - all produce spontaneity and improvisation - not just repetition and drills.

10 More emphasis on active modes of learning, including pairwork and group-work - often not exploited enough by teachers fearful of noisy class.

11  Primacy of oral work. Emphasis on oral and listening skills in the classroom. Contact time with language is all-important - paves way for more fluid command of the language / facility and ease of expression. Not just hearing teacher, but having personal contact themselves with language, practising sounds themselves, permutating sentence patterns and getting chance to make mistakes and learn from doing so.

12     Errors are a natural part of learning language. Learners trying their best to use the language creatively and spontaneously are bound to make errors. Constant correction is unnecessary and even counter-productive. Correction should be discreet / noted by teacher - let them talk and express themselves - form of language becomes secondary.

13     Communicative approach is not just limited to oral skills. Reading and writing skills need to be developed to promote pupils' confidence in all four skill areas. By using elements encountered in variety of ways (reading/ summarising/ translating/ discussion/ debates) - makes language more fluid and pupils' manipulation of language more fluent.

14     Grammar can still be taught, but less systematically, in traditional ways alongside more innovative approaches. Recognised that communication depends on grammar. Disregard of grammatical form will virtually guarantee breakdown in communication.

15     Language analysis and grammar explanation may help some learners, but extensive experience of target language helps everyone. Pupils need to hear plenty said about the topic in the foreign language at regular and recurrent intervals, so they are exposed to the topic and can assimilate it. (Not mere passive acquisition of certain lexical items).

16     Communicative approach seeks to personalise and localise language and adapt it to interests of pupils. Meaningful language is always more easily retained by learners.

17  Use of idiomatic/ everyday language (even slang words 'bof bof' / 'i'sais pas'). This is kind of language used in communication between people - not a 'medium'/ grammatical/ exam-orientated/ formal language!

18     Makes use of topical items with which pupils are already familiar in their own language - motivates pupils arouses their interest and leads to more active participation.

19     Avoid age-old texts - materials must relate to pupils' own lives / must be fresh and real (cf. Whitmarsh texts developing language but not communicative language!) Changing texts and materials regularly keeps teacher on toes and pupils interested.

20     Language need not be laboriously monotonous and 'medium' orientated. Can be structured but also spontaneous and incidental. Language is never static. Life isn't like that - we are caught unawares, unprepared, 'pounced upon!' Pupils need to practise improvising/ ad-libbing/ talking off the cuff, in an unrehearsed but natural manner.

21  Spontaneous and improvised practice helps to make minds more flexible and inspire confidence in coping with unforeseen, unanticipated situations. Need to 'go off at tangents' / use different registers / develop alternative ways of saying things.

22     Communicative approach seeks to use authentic resources. More interesting and motivating. In Foreign language classroom authentic texts serve as partial substitute for community of native speaker. Newspaper and magazine articles, poems, manuals, recipes, telephone directories, videos, news bulletins, discussion programmes - all can be exploited in variety of ways.

23     Important not to be restricted to textbook, Never feel that text-book must be used from cover to cover. Only a tool / starting-point. With a little inspiration and imagination, text-book can be manipulated and rendered more communicative. Teacher must free himself from it, rely more on his own command of language and his professional expertise as to what linguistic items, idioms, phrases, words, need to be drilled / exploited/ extended.

24  Use of visual stimuli - OHP/ flashcards, etc - important to provoke practical communicative language. (3 stages presentation / assimilation/ reproducing language in creative and spontaneous way).

Visual resources can be exploited at whatever level one wishes - help to motivate and focus pupils' attention.

Communicative Language Teaching: An Introduction And Sample Activities

Ann Galloway, Center for Applied Linguistics

This digest will take a look at the communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages. It is intended as an introduction to the communicative approach for teachers and teachers-in-training who want to provide opportunities in the classroom for their students to engage in real-life communication in the target language. Questions to be dealt with include what the communicative approach is, where it came from, and how teachers' and students' roles differ from the roles they play in other teaching approaches. Examples of exercises that can be used with a communicative approach are described, and sources of appropriate materials are provided.

What is communicative language teaching?

Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate communication. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in real life. Unlike the audiolingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and responses. The real-life simulations change from day to day. Students' motivation to learn comes from their desire to communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics.

Margie S. Berns, an expert in the field of communicative language teaching, writes in explaining Firth's view that "language is interaction; it is interpersonal activity and has a clear relationship with society. In this light, language study has to look at the use (function) of language in context, both its linguistic context (what is uttered before and after a given piece of discourse) and its social, or situational, context (who is speaking, what their social roles are, why they have come together to speak)" (Berns, 1984, p. 5).

What are some examples of communicative exercises?

Gunter Gerngross, an English teacher in Austria, gives an example of how he makes his lessons more communicative. He cites a widely used textbook that shows English children having a pet show. "Even when learners act out this scene creatively and enthusiastically, they do not reach the depth of involvement that is almost tangible when they act out a short text that presents a family conflict revolving round the question of whether the children should be allowed to have a pet or not" (Gerngross & Puchta, 1984, p. 92). He continues to say that the communicative approach "puts great emphasis on listening, which implies an active will to try to understand others. [This is] one of the hardest tasks to achieve because the children are used to listening to the teacher but not to their peers. There are no quick, set recipes. That the teacher be a patient listener is the basic requirement" (p.98).

The observation by Gerngross on the role of the teacher as one of listener rather than speaker brings up several points to be discussed in the next portion of this digest.

How do the roles of the teacher and student change in communicative language teaching?

Teachers in communicative classrooms will find themselves talking less and listening more becoming active facilitators of their students' learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986). The teacher sets up the exercise, but because the students' performance is the goal, the teacher must step back and observe, sometimes acting as referee or monitor. A classroom during a communicative activity is far from quiet, however. The students do most of the speaking, and frequently the scene of a classroom during a communicative exercise is active, with students leaving their seats to complete a task. Because of the increased responsibility to participate, students may find they gain confidence in using the target language in general. Students are more responsible managers of their own learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986).

Where can I learn more about communicative teaching?

All of the following documents on communicative language teaching are in the ERIC database. They can be read on microfiche at any library housing an ERIC collection or purchased in microfiche or paper copy from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS), 7420 Fullerton Road, Suite 110, Springfield, VA 22153-2852 (1-800-443-3742).

Ben-Barka, A. C. [1982]. In search of a language teaching framework: An adaptation of a communicative approach to functional practice. (EDRS No. ED239507, 26 pages)

Das, B. K. (Ed.) (1984). Communicative language teaching. Selected papers from the RELC seminar (Singapore). Anthology Series 14. (EDRS No. ED266661, 234 pages)

Littlewood, W. T. (1983). Communicative approach to language teaching methodology (CLCS Occasional Paper No. 7). Dublin: Dublin University Trinity College, Centre for Language and Communication Studies. (EDRS No. ED235690, 23 pages)

Pattison, P. (1987). The communicative approach and classroom realities. (EDRS No. ED288407, 17 pages)

Riley, P. (1982). Topics in communicative methodology: Including a preliminary and selective bibliography on the communicative approach. (EDRS No. ED231213, 31 pages)

Savignon, S. J., & Berns, M. S. (Eds.). (1983). Communicative language teaching: Where are we going? Studies in Language Learning, 4(2). (EDRS No. ED278226, 210 pages)

Sheils, J. (1986). Implications of the communicative approach for the role of the teacher. (EDRS No. ED268831, 7 pages)

Swain, M., & Canale, M. (1982). The role of grammar in a communicative approach to second language teaching and testing. (EDRS No. ED221026, 8 pages) (not available separately; available from EDRS as part of ED221023, 138 pages)

Willems, G., & Riley, P. (Eds.). (1984). Communicative foreign language teaching and the training of foreign language teachers. (EDRS No. ED273102, 219 pages)

Readers may also wish to consult the following journal articles for additional information on communicative language teaching.

Clark, J. L. (1987). Classroom assessment in a communicative approach. British Journal of Language Teaching, 25(1), 9-19.

Dolle, D., & Willems, G. M. (1984). The communicative approach to foreign language teaching: The teacher's case. European Journal of Teacher Education, 7(2), 145-54.

Morrow, K., & Schocker, M. (1987). Using texts in a communicative approach. ELT Journal, 41(4), 248-56.

Oxford, R. L., et al. (1989). Language learning strategies, the communicative approach, and their classroom implications. Foreign Language Annals, 22(1), 29-39.

Pica, T. P. (1988). Communicative language teaching: An aid to second language acquisition? Some insights from classroom research. English Quarterly, 21(2), 70-80.

Rosenthal, A. S., & Sloane, R. A. (1987). A communicative approach to foreign language instruction: The UMBC project. Foreign Language Annals, 20(3), 245-53.

Swan, M. (1985). A critical look at the communicative approach (1). ELT Journal, 39(1), 2-12.

Swan, M. (1985). A critical look at the communicative approach (2). ELT Journal, 39(2), 76-87.

Terrell, T. D. (1991). The role of grammar instruction in a communicative approach. Modern Language Journal, 75(1), 52-63.

References And Resources

Berns, M. S. (1984). Functional approaches to language and language teaching: Another look. In S. Savignon & M. S. Berns (Eds.), Initiatives in communicative language teaching. A book of readings (pp. 3-21). Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley.

Gerngross, G., & Puchta, H. (1984). Beyond notions and functions: Language teaching or the art of letting go. In S. Savignon & M. S. Berns (Eds.), Initiatives in communicative language teaching. A book of readings (pp. 89-107). Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986). Techniques and principles in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Littlewood, W. (1981). Language teaching. An introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Savignon, S., & Berns, M. S. (Eds.). (1984). Initiatives in communicative language teaching. Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley.

Applying Principled Eclecticism

While this "loose" approach may sound either ideal or simplistic depending on your point of view, it requires a basic grasp of some of the principle schools of thought as a means of getting an overview of issues directly related to satisfying learners' needs. In a nutshell, the application of principled eclecticism proceeds by first addressing the issue of learners' needs and styles. Once these two basic elements have been evaluated, the teacher can develop a needs analysis which can then be used to develop the course syllabus.

Definitions

Interlanguage Skill: A scala of languages that fit the level of the student's language skill at any moment. In other words, there are many levels of speaking a language each of which can be sufficient for a given student.

Comprehensible Input: Originated by Krashen, the core of this idea is that if we do not understand the input we cannot learn.

Negotiation of Meaning: Interactional hypothesis that states that learning comes about in the moment of exchange between a native speaker and a non-native speaker.

Product Oriented Approach: The accumulation of bits and pieces of a language (for example, learning tenses and doing exercises based on correct tense usage).

The following two cases give examples of the process involved in applying this approach to different types of classes.

Class 1 Needs and Styles

Age: young adults from 21-30

Nationality: class of German students located in Germany

Learning Styles: college educated, familiarity with product oriented approach to learning a language, widely traveled and familiarity with other European cultures.

Goals: First Certificate Examination at end of course

Interlanguage Skills: all students can communicate in English and accomplish most common language tasks (i.e., completing day-to-day tasks in a native speaker society, telephone, expressing viewpoints, etc.), higher level complexity such as writing essays, expressing complex arguments in fine detail is next desired step.

Course Duration: 100 hours

Approach

As the First Certificate Examination is the goal of the course and there is a limited number of hours, the course will have to often employ a deductive (i.e., teacher centered, book learning) approach in order to complete all the grammatical tasks required by the examination.

Students are very familiar with traditional learning approaches such as grammar charts, drill exercises, etc. In this case, awareness raising concerning basic language patterns will not be necessary. However, as the students are quite young and most fresh out of college, they may have to be helped to understand and accept more innovative (i.e., inductive) approaches to learning (i.e., role-playing for improving speaking skills, general class discussions with little or no correction) as they are probably used to more goal oriented study situations.

As the First Certificate Exam includes many authentic materials, students will benefit greatly from exercises that focus on the negotiation of meaning. This negotiation of meaning is a type of interactional learning that comes about in the moment of exchange with a native speaker context that requires the learner to "negotiate meaning" thereby expanding his language skills.

Objectives of the First Certificate Examination will be the overriding factor in the determination of class activities. In other words, activities based on Neuro Linguistic Programming may not be desirable as this approach to teaching focuses on a "holistic" learning method, which, unfortunately, may not provide all the bits and pieces required to complete the examination exercises such as sentence transformation.

As the course duration is limited and the objectives are many, there will be little time for experiments and "fun" activities. Work needs to be focused and principally goal oriented.

Class 2 Needs and Styles

Age: immigrant adults from 30-65

Nationalities: a variety of countries

Learning Styles: most of the class has had little secondary education and has not studied languages formally

Goals: Basic ESL skills for everyday usage and job aquisition

Interlanguage Skills: basic tasks such as ordering a meal and making a telephone call are still difficult

Course Duration: 2 month intensive course meeting four times weekly for two hours

Approach

The approach to teaching this class is dictated by two principal factors: need for "real world" skills, lack of background in traditional learning styles

Pragmatic functional English is of prime importance. Luckily, the course is intensive and provides the perfect opportunity for intensive role-playing and "real world" game activities.

As students are immigrants and a native speaker environment is at hand, teaching can also take place by bringing the "real world" into the classroom and/or - even more preferably - taking the classroom out into the "real world".

Low level English skills mean that comprehensible input will play a great role in the success or failure of the class. Considering the low level of interlanguage skill, students desperately need the teacher to help them by filtering experiences into a comprehensible form so that they may make sense of situations that are too difficult if faced on a strictly "authentic" level.

Learning by process will be of great importance. The positive side of low-level education is that students are not attached to traditional learning methods such as grammar charts, exercises, etc. The use of holistic learning approaches can be very effective as students will not have any pre-conceived notions about what learning should be like.

CALL

There has been much debate over the use of computer assisted language learning (CALL) in the ESL/EFL classroom over the past decade. As you are reading this feature via the Internet (and I am writing this using a computer), I will assume that you feel that CALL is useful to your teaching and/or learning experience.

There are many uses of the computer in the classroom. In today's feature I would like to provide some examples of how I like to use CALL in my teaching. I find that CALL can be successfully employed not only for grammar practice and correction, but also for communicative activities. As most of you are familiar with the programs that offer help with grammar, I would like to focus on the use of CALL for communicative activities.

Successful communication learning is dependent on the student's desire to participate. I'm sure most teachers are familiar with students who complain about poor speaking and communication skills, who however, when asked to communicate, are often reluctant to do so. In my opinion, this lack of participation is often caused by the artificial nature of the classroom. When asked to communicate about various situations, students should also be involved in the actual situation. Decision making, asking for advice, agreeing and disagreeing, and compromising with fellow students are all tasks that cry out for "authentic" settings. It is in these settings that I feel CALL can be used to great advantage. By using the computer as a tool to create student projects, research information and provide context, teachers can employ the computer to help students become more involved in the task at hand, thereby facilitating the necessity of effective communication within a group setting.

Exercise 1 Focus on Passive Voice

Generally, students coming from around the world are more than happy to speak about their native country. Obviously, when speaking about a country (city, state etc.) the passive voice is required. I have found the following activity using the computer to be of great assistance in helping students focus on the correct use of the passive voice for communication and reading and writing skills.

Inductively review the passive structures in class (or introduce the passive structures)

Provide a text example, focusing on a specific location, that includes many passive voice structures

Have students read through the text

As a follow up, have students separate passive voice and active voice examples

Using a program such as Microsoft Encarta or any other multimedia encyclopedia, (or the Internet) have students working in small groups find information about their own nation (or any city, state etc.)

Based on the information they have found, students then write a short report together at the computer (using a spell check, communicating about formatting etc.)

Students then report back to the class presenting their report created at the computer

This exercise is a perfect example of involving students in an "authentic" activity that focuses on communication skills while at the same time including a grammar focus, and uses the computer as a tool. Students have fun together, communicate in English and are proud of the results they achieve - all ingredients for successful inductive learning of the passive voice in a communicative manner.

Exercise 2 Strategy Games

For younger learners of English, strategy games can be one of the most effective ways to get students to communicate, agree and disagree, ask for opinions and generally use their English in an authentic setting. Students are asked to focus on the successful completion of a task such as solving riddles (Myst, Riven) and developing strategies (SIM City).

Choose a strategy game such as a SIM or mystery

Have students divide into teams

Create a specific task in the game itself, such as the completion of a certain level, the creation of a certain type of environment, the solving of a specific riddle. This is important for providing a framework and specific language needs/goals for a common ground in the classroom.

Have students complete the task.

Have students come together in the classroom and compare strategies.

Once again, students who find it difficult to participate in a classroom setting (Describe your favourite holiday? Where did you go? What did you do? etc.) generally become involved. The focus is not on their completing a task which can be judged as correct or incorrect, but rather on the enjoyable atmosphere of team work which a computer strategy game provides.

These are just a two examples of the various ways in which a computer can be used as a tool with which students are encouraged to participate in satisfying communicative experiences. Below are further links providing information on the use of the computer in the classroom

What is a meme?

A cultural unit (an idea or value or pattern of behavior) that is passed from one person to another by non-genetic means (as by imitation); "memes are the cultural counterpart of genes"

A meme can be a simple idea, or a complex idea. The most important point about a meme is that it propagates. In other words, a meme is an idea, value or pattern of behavior that is especially attractive and is passed from one person to the next - or even one society to the next.

Let's take an idea of a simple meme: 'love, love, love (music) love, love, love ...' If you are familiar with the Beatles you probably are humming that tune right now. That tune is a meme (at least as it is understood by the experts - references below!). It is passed around the world through the radio, people singing, etc. The Beatles were very good at creating musical memes, and the life of their music continues on beyond their own lives.

A more complex meme might be the idea of democracy. Many feel that this is the best system in the world, while others might vehemently disagree. It's an idea that's very attractive and has been passed down through the generations. Some people (Richard Dawkins who originated the idea) claim that religions are memes.

The great thing about thinking about ideas, values, etc. in terms of being memes is that it allows you to distance yourself from memes. If it is just an idea that is propagated effectively, it is not necessarily THE TRUTH. How does this apply to learning English? I think that many of our learning techniques are memes. They are ideas that have been passed down from one teacher to another, to students, etc. They are ideas about how you should learn a language. Unfortunately, what makes a good meme does not always make a good language learning technique! Let's take a look at what I consider to be some of the more damaging memes.

The best way to learn grammar is to study all the rules.

It's best not to speak if you are going to make a lot of mistakes.

The only way to read English is to make sure you understand each and every word.

You should be able to translate from your own language while speaking English.

These are all methods that someone, at sometime, thought were the best techniques. Remember all the conjugation drills? Just a meme! Many memes teach us things that are very helpful - that is a reason they are so successful as memes. However, it is important to keep in mind that many learning techniques are passed on as memes, but might not necessarily be truly what you need. Any idea or technique that doesn't work for you or your class should be thrown overboard! There's no reason to keep a meme around once its past its prime.

On the other hand, there are plenty of excellent memes that will help with language learning. Here are some of my favorites:

Language is made up of chunks - learn the most common chunks.

Study vocabulary in context.

Multiple intelligences means everybody can learn a language - they just need to figure out their own.

Learning styles are important and you should look for educational tools that leverage your type of intelligence.

Role-plays are a useful way of practicing English.

Social networks can help you find English speaking friends.

Of course, these ideas are not necessarily strong memes - yet. I hope that some of these ideas do well as memes, because I believe they are powerful teaching tools. I also do my best to present these ideas on my site to help them become stronger memes.

To return to my original argument: Some language learning rules are really just strong memes that have been very successful in propagating themselves. If these memes do not seem to be working for you or your class in your English language learning, try to find some new, stronger, and more helpful for you. Go out and launch the memes you like best, help them grow strong, and hopefully, you will help others improve their own English learning experience.

Lesson Plan

There are many different approaches to teaching English. However, most of these plans tend to follow this standard lesson plan format.

Warm-up

Presentation

Controlled practice

Free practice

Feedback

This lesson plan format is popular for many reasons including:

Students have a number of chances to learn a concept through various means

Students have plenty of time to practice

Teachers can give detailed instruction, or students can deduce structures and learning points through practice

The standard lesson plan format provides structure

It provides for variation over the course of 60 - 90 minutes

This lesson plan format moves from teacher centered to student centered learning

Variations on the Lesson Plan Format Theme

In order to keep this standard lesson plan format from becoming boring, it is important to remember that there are a number of variations that can be applied within the various segments of the lesson plan format.

Warm-up

Students might arrive late, tired, stressed or otherwise distracted to class. In order to get their attention, it's best to open with a warm-up activity. The warm-up can be as simple as telling a short story or asking students questions. The warm-up can also be a more thought-out activity such as playing a song in the background, or drawing an elaborate picture on the board. While it's fine to start a lesson with a simple "How are you", it's much better to tie your warm-up into the theme of the lesson.

Presentation

The presentation can take a variety of forms:

Reading selection

Soliciting students' knowledge about a specific point

Teacher centered explanation

Listening selection

Short video

Student presentation

The presentation should include the main "meat" of the lesson. For example: If you are working on phrasal verbs, make the presentation by providing a short reading extract peppered with phrasal verbs.

Controlled practice

The controlled practice section of the lesson provides students direct feedback on their comprehension of the task at hand. Generally, controlled practice involves some type of exercise. Remember that an exercise doesn't necessarily mean dry, rote exercises, although these can be used as well. Controlled practice should help the student focus on the main task and provide them with feedback - either by the teacher or other students.

Free practice

Free practice integrates the focus structure / vocabulary / functional language into students' overall language use. Free practice exercises often encourage students to use the target language structures in:

Small group discussions

Written work (paragraphs and essays)

Longer listening comprehension practice

Games

The most important aspect of free practice is that students should be encouraged to integrate language learned into larger structures. This requires more of a "stand-off" approach to teaching. It's often useful to circulate around the room and take notes on common mistakes. In other words, students should be allowed to make more mistakes during this part of the lesson.

Feedback

Feedback allows students to check their understanding of the lesson's topic. Feedback can be done quickly at the end of class by asking students questions about the target structures. Another approach is to have students discuss the target structures in small groups, once again giving students the chance to improve their understanding on their own.