Реферат По дисциплине: теоретическая грамматика На тему: «The types of the predicate»
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Реферат  

По дисциплине: теоретическая грамматика

На тему: «The types of the predicate»

Content

Introduction                                                                              

Part 1 The main parts of the sentence                                    

Part 2 Types of the predicate in the English language        

Conclusion                                                                              

INTRODUCTION

The subject and the predicate constitute the backbone of the sentence: without them the sentence would not exist at all, whereas all other parts may or may not be there, and if they are there, they serve to define or modify either the subject or the predicate, or each other.

The subject is one of the 2 main parts of the sentence. It denotes the thing whose action or characteristic is expressed by the predicate. It is not dependent on any other part of the sentence. The Predicate is the part of the sentence which expresses a predicative feature attributed to the subject of the sentence. Like the subject, the predicate also carries out a triple function in the sentence: structural, semantic and communicative. Its structural function consists in establishing the syntactic relations with the subject and other parts of the sentence. The semantic function of the predicate finds its expression in attributing certain features to the subject. Its communicative function is manifested in the fact that through the predicate and the expression of predication the sentence becomes a minimal unit of communication. The predicate is 'the structural and semantic centre of the sentence’. In the structure of a simple, two-member sentence the predicate usually carries out the function of the rheme, He disappeared. According to the form of expression predicates are divided into verbal and nominal: The moon rose. The moon was pale. There exists a phraseological predicate (presents a combination of such verbs as have, get, give, take and a verbal noun (give a look, take a bath, have a smoke). From the grammatical point of view the most important characteristic of this type of predicate is not so much its phraseological but its analytical character (all analytical structures are characterized by  idiomaticity of their components). The verb expresses the grammatical meaning and the verbal noun expresses a lexical meaning. The two formal types of the predicate correspond to the two main semantic types: process predicate which expresses the action, the state or the existence of the subject and qualification predicate which expresses the quality (property) of the subject. The process predicate can be further subdivided into several types in accordance with the semantic types of verbs: existential (There was a tavern in the town), statal (He slept), locative (The elephant lives in India), relational (He had a small ranch) and actional (The car broke down). The qualification predicate has three subtypes: identifying (So you are the man we have been looking for), classifying (My friend is a student) and characterizing (My wife is a bit of an actress. He was too German).Structurally the predicate may be divided into simple and compound. We said good- bye - a simple verbal predicate; It was a lovely place -simple nominal predicate. The predicate is compounded by the introduction of modal or aspective components. We started saying good-bye - a compound verbal predicate; It must be a lovely place - a compound nominal predicate.

THE MAIN PARTS OF A SENTENCE.

It is common in grammatical theory to distinguish between main and secondary parts of a sentence. Besides these two types there is one more — elements which are said to stand outside the sentence structure. In starting now to study parts of the sentence in Modern English, we will begin by analyzing the principle or principles on which this classification is based. There are two generally recognized main parts of the sentence — the subject and the predicate. As to the secondary parts, their number varies slightly. Among them we usually find the object (with its subdivisions), the attribute, and the adverbial modifier. Other secondary parts are also sometimes mentioned — the apposition (its relation to the attribute is variously interpreted), the objective predicative, and occasionally some other parts, too.

The reason for calling the subject and the predicate the main parts of the sentence and distinguishing them from all other parts which are treated as secondary, is roughly this. The subject and the predicate between them constitute the backbone of the sentence: without them the sentence would not exist at all, whereas all oilier parts may or may not be there, and if they are there, they serve to define or modify either the subject or the predicate, or each other. A linguistic experiment to prove the correctness of this view would be to take a sentence containing a subject, a predicate, and a number of secondary parts, and to show that any of the secondary parts might be removed without the sentence being destroyed, whereas if either the subject or the predicate were removed there would be no sentence left: its "backbone" would be broken. This experiment would probably succeed and prove the point in a vast majority of cases. We will therefore stick to the division of sentence parts into main and secondary, taking the subject and the predicate to be the main parts, and all the others to be secondary.

THE TYPES OF PREDICATE

The predicate is the second, principal part of the sentence. Itserves to assert something about the subject and has a definite gram matical structure.

Predicates may be classified in two ways, one of which is based on their structure (simple and compound), and the other on their morphological characteristics (verbal and nominal). If we take the structural classification as the basic one we obtain the following types:

 A Simple predicate (1) Verbal (2) Nominal

В Compound predicate (1) Verbal (2) Nominal

If we were to take the morphological classification as the basic one the result would be the following:

A Verbal predicate (1) Simple (2) Compound

В Nominal predicate (1) Simple (2) Compound

The simple nominal predicate

The ultimate result is of course the same in both cases. Most of the predicate types mentioned here do not call for any comment. However, something has to be said on two questions: the simple nominal predicate and the limits of the compound verbal predicate. The simple nominal predicate, that is, a predicate consisting merely of a noun or an adjective, without a link verb, is rare in English, but it is nevertheless a living type and must be recognized as such. The spheres of its use appear to be mainly two. One of these is found in sentences where the immediate neighborhood of the subject noun and the predicate noun or adjective is used to suggest the impossibility or absurdity of the idea that they might be connected. Sentences with this kind of simple nominal predicate are always exclamatory, that is, they are pronounced with the exclamatory intonation, and have an exclamation mark in writing.

For instance, the sentence from a play by Shaw, My ideas obsolete!!!!!!! (with seven exclamation marks) expresses the speaker's indignation at hearing his ideas characterized as obsolete by a younger man.  It would not do to call such sentences elliptical, since the link verb cannot be added without completely changing the meaning of the sentence.

In our next example the subject is followed by an infinitive with an inserted clause between them: Such an old, old lady, he came near to saying out loud to himself, to come so far, on a train called the Blue Mountain, out of the south, into the north. (BUECHNER) The infinitive to come here clearly performs the function of predicate. Though there is no exclamation mark at the end of the sentence, it is clearly exclamatory. The idea expressed in it might also be expressed in this way: That such an old, old lady... should come so far, on a train called the Blue Mountain, out of the south, into the north.

In our next example both sentences have a predicate infinitive without to: George mind tennis on Sunday! George, after his education, distinguish between Sunday — (FORSTER) This is said in reply to a suggestion that George would refuse to play tennis on a Sunday.

 Another type of sentence with a simple nominal predicate is that in which the predicative comes first, the subject next, and no link verb is either used or possible. Such sentences seem to occur chiefly in colloquial style, for instance: "Splendid game, cricket," remarked Mr Barbecue-Smith heartily to no one in particular; "so thoroughly English" (HUXLEY). This is a sentence with a simple nominal predicate. There is inversion, no article with the predicative noun, and the style is very colloquial. The phrase representing the rhyme comes first, and after it comes the word representing the theme. That it is the theme is made quite clear by the preceding context. Priscilla, the mistress of the house, is reading a newspaper at breakfast: "I see Surrey won," she said, with her mouth full, "by four wickets. The sun is in Leo: that would account for it!" Although the word cricket is not mentioned, it is quite evident, from the words Surrey (which here denotes a cricket team), won and wickets, that she has been reading about the latest cricket match. The latter part of Mr Barbecue-Smith's speech, so thoroughly English, adds another predicative to the first, splendid game, and also with no link verb to it. If changed into the usual compound nominal predicate pattern, the sentence would run: "Cricket is a splendid game; it is so thoroughly English"; the meaning would be quite the same as in the original sentence but the specific colloquial colouring would be gone altogether.

The Simple Verbal Predicate

       1. The simple verbal predicate expresses an action performed (active voice) or suffered (passive voice) by the subject: A white mist hides the bay sometimes (Maurier). In those days Itravelled much... (Setоn-Thоmpsоn). Someone had knocked at the door (Hemingway). What time will you return, Robert? (Brоnte). Thedoor was thrown open (Dickens). I was wired for (Doуls).

       If the verb denotes a state (to sleep, to lie, etc), the state, as far as it is expressed by a verb, is conceived as a process developing in time: For more than a week my pen has lain untouched (Gissing)....She had been sleeping for six hours... (Eliot).

       2. A simple verbal predicate may be expressed by a phraseological unit consisting of a verb with a vague meaning and a noun which usually expresses an action (a group-verb). In this combination both elements are so closely connected as to form one sense unit and may be regarded as an intransitive verb (to have a swim — to swim: to have a smoke — to smoke; to take place — to happen, to occur; to pay a visit — to visit): Burton gave a kindly little chuckle (Maugham). I made him a bow (Dickens). I took leave of Prawle... (Galsworthy). Clare gave him a swift look (Galsworthy). ...Tom caught sight of something in rapid movement in the water... (E1iоt). Good-bye, my boy; take care of yourself (Galsworthy). Of all that Jonny took no notice (London). And now we’ll have a look at my state-room... (Conrad). ...He went to the servicemen’s hostel and had a bath and a sleep (Cusасk).

The Compound Verbal Predicate

      The compound verbal predicate consists of two parts: notional and semi-auxiliary (служебная часть).The notional part expressed by an infinitive or gerund (rarely a participle) denotes the action performed or suffered by the subject. The semi-auxiliary part comprises a finite verb which besides expressing the grammatical categories of person, mood, tense, etc. imparts by its lexical meaning a modal or aspect character to the action denoted by the infinitive or gerund.

      Accordingly there are two types of compound verbal predicates: modal and aspect.

The Compound Verbal Modal Predicate

The Compound Verbal Modal Predicate shows whether the acton expressed by a non-finite form of the verb is considered as possible, impossible, obligatory, necessary, desirable. These meanings are expressed by the first component of the predicate.

      The modal compound verbal predicate consists of an infinitive or gerund combined with a verb in the finite form which expresses that the action denoted by the infinitive or gerund is considered as obligatory, desirable, doubtful, etc.

      There are the following types of modal compound verbal predicates:

      1. A modal (defective) verb or a modal verb equivalent (to have and to be) combined with the infinitive (a subjective infinitive): He could hear two persons talking in the pantry (Joyce). He knew, he must go (Lawrence). You need not pain yourself by entering into that part of the story (Doyle). ...I might give a little dinner next week — just for you and Denny and Hope (Cronin). She was to arrive by train at half past twelve... (Galsworthy).

      2. One of the following verbs which do not denote actions but express various modal meanings (intention, determination, attempt, desire, hope, etc) combined with the infinitive (a subjective infinitive): to intend, to resolve, to decide, to plan, to mean, to desire, to attempt, to try, to endeavour, to fail, to strive, to seek, to hope, to long, to expect, to wish, to want, etc.

      3. Combinations of a link-verb with a predicative (adjective or participle) which have no independent lexical meaning and do not give the subject any qualitative characteristic but only part various modal meanings (obligation, readiness, ability, etc) to the action expressed by the infinitive with which they are associated: to be obliged, to be compelled, to be Inclined, to be eager, to be anxious, to be ready, to be glad (= ready), to be able, to be unable, etc.: Every minute or so he was compelled to rest (London). The apples are... ready to fall (Galsworthy). He was only anxious to forget(Greene). He was determined to proceed with discernment in every thing he did (Cronin). ...She was only too inclined to take advantage of his weakness (Galsworthy).

       4. The expression to be going + infinitive which has often modal force (to intend to do something): I’m not going to stand this sort of thing any longer (Dickens).At breakfast next morning he asked her what she was going to do that day (Coppard).

       5. The following phraseological units: had better, had best, had rather, would sooner, would rather, would have combined with the infinitive (a subjective infinitive): How are we going to sit? I’d better get up by the driver (Mansfield). «I had rather be a child,» replied Paul (Dickens).

The Compound Verbal Aspect Predicate

      The  compound verbal aspect predicate comprises an infinitive or gerund (rarely a participle) combined with the finite form of a verb which indicates the beginning, duration or end of the action denoted by the infinitive or gerund, such as: to begin, to continue, to keep, to go on, to stop, etc.Also the combinations: would + infinitive, used to + infinitive which express repeated, habitual actions in the past.

      The rain began to descend heavily (Dickens). He continued blinking his eyes and trying to smile... (Joyce). His eyes kept questioning her face... (Galsworthy). Bessie had now finished dusting and tidying the room... (Bronte). Gabriel had known her when she was a child and used to sit on the lowest step nursing a rag doll... (Joyce).  

      In some cases the verbal predicate may be both modal and aspect: You must begin to study properly.

The Compound Nominal Predicate

The nominal predicate denotes a certain state or quality of the subject, it is a qualifying predicate:  The spring was late that year (Greene). She was a brilliant andoriginal teacher... (Cronin).

The compound nominal predicate always consists of a link verb and a predicative, which may be expressed by various parts of speech, usually a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

There are several types of nominal predicate:

            a) The nominal predicate of being. The most typical link-verb of that type is the verb to be, but there are also some other verbs of this kind, such as: to feel, to look, to smell, to taste, etc.: The sky was blue to the very horizon... (Galsworthy).It was a warm, still night... (Hitchens). The woman did not look gay... (Galsworthy). The hall door... stood open (Bronte).

      b) The nominal predicate of becoming. The verb to become is the most typical link-verb of this kind. Some other verbs are also used as link-verbs of becoming, such as: to grow, to get, to turn: The sleet has become snow... (Galsworthy). Outside it was getting dark (Hemingway). The night had gone colder... (Snow).

      c) The nominal predicate of remaining. The most typical link-verb of this kind is the verb to remain. Some other verbs also serve as link-verbs of remaining: to continue, to keep, to stay: ...The sea, blue and profound, remained still, without a stir, without a ripple, without a wrinkle... (Conrad).

      d) The nominal predicate of seeming or appearing: The landlady seemed a good, rough woman (Galsworthy). ...He did not seem in the least tired (Snow). ...He seemed so much older than his years as Dodo appeared younger than hers (Benson).

Often enough the predicative is represented by a phrase, most usually of the pattern "preposition + noun", which may or may not be a phraseological unit. Now we must find the characteristic features of a link verb. It should first of all be noted that the term "link verb" (as well as the term "copula", after which it appears to have been coined) is not a very happy one. The idea of "link" suggests that its function is to connect the predicative with the subject. This, however, is hardly intelligible. Why should the predicative need some special word to connect it with the subject? It could stand side by side with the subject without the help of any "link". Indeed it does not require any link in sentences with the simple nominal predicate, and this is still more usual in Russian, where no link verb as a rule appears in the present tense. The true function of a link verb is not a connecting function. It expresses the tense and the mood in the predicate. The link verb be, which expresses these categories, and also those of number and person, is rightly considered to be the most abstract of all link verbs, that is, the one most devoid of any meaning of its own. Other link verbs have each some lexical meaning. When a verb is used as a link-verb, it loses its primary lexical meaning and acquires the abstract meaning of being in a certain state (He is a student), of passing into a new state (He became a teacher) or of remaining in a certain state (He remained silent).

Though the term "link verb" is purely conventional, we will retain it, as it is in common use and an attempt to substitute another term would stand little chance of success. Besides the verb be there are a number of other link verbs with different meanings which we need not discuss here, for instance become, get, continue, grow, turn, e. g. Then he grew thirsty and went indoors (LINKLATER); But presently the sea turned rough (Idem), etc. It will be readily seen that some of them do not always perform this function but may also be a predicate in themselves, for instance the verb grow in the sentences The child has grown, or, We grow potatoes. Of course it is only the meaning of the noun following the verb that shows whether the noun is a predicative or an object: compare the two sentences They have grown fine young men and They grow potatoes. So if we say that a verb is a link verb this need not necessarily mean that it is always a link verb and cannot perform any other function. To approach the subject of link verb and predicative from another angle, we may say that if a verb is followed by a predicative it is, to some extent at least, a link verb. The restriction "to some extent at least" is necessary because there are sentences in which the finite verb is a predicate in itself, that is, it contains some information about the subject which may be taken separately, but at the same time the verb is followed by a predicative (a noun or an adjective) and is in so far a link verb. This is found in sentences like the following: He came home tired, She married young, He died a bachelor, etc. The finite verb in such sentences conveys a meaning of its own (he came, she married, he died), but the main point of the sentence lies in the information conveyed by the predicative noun or adjective. We might retell the meaning of these sentences in another way, namely: He was tired when he came home, She was young when she married, He was a bachelor when he died, etc. The finite verb, besides being a predicate in itself, also performs the function of a link verb. Since such sentences have both a simple verbal predicate and a compound nominal predicate, they form a special or mixed type: predicates of this kind may be termed double predicates. Here are some examples: Above the cages and fell in broad shafts to the linoleum floor where he dropped his bucket. (BUECHNER) Compare also the following sentence: Catherine's blood ran cold with the horrid suggestions which naturally sprang from these words. (J. AUSTEN) The lexical meaning of the verb run is here almost wholly obliterated, as will also be seen by translating the sentence into Russian, or, indeed, any other language.

The Predicative

The predicative is expressed by:

      a) A noun in the common case: The kitchen was a white-washed room with rafters (Galsworthy).It was a perfect morning (Lawrence).

      b) A pronoun: «Who’s there?» — «It’s me», she said (Greene).      c) A noun or a pronoun with a preposition:  The steps and banisters were of oak... (Bronte).

     d)  numeral: We were only three at table... (Conrad).

      e) An adjective or a participle: The spring was late that year (Galsworthy).

      f) An infinitive: Our intention is to help you. To prolong doubt was to prolong hope(Bronte).

      g) A gerund: Our aim is mastering grammar. Seeing is believing.

      h) An adverb (such as in, out, up, over, so-so, etc.; also the interrogative adverb how): ...My guardian was out... (Dickens). The sun was off, dew falling

(Galsworthy). ...All the lights were out (Dickens).

CONCLUSION

In traditional grammar, a predicate is one of the two main parts of a sentence the other being the subject, which the predicate modifies. For the simple sentence "John is yellow" John acts as the subject, and is yellow acts as the predicate. The predicate is much like a verb phrase.

The predicate provides information about the subject, such as what the subject is doing or what the subject is like.

The predicate is the second, principal part of the sentence. It serves to assert something about the subject and has a definite grammatical structure.

       It is characteristic of the English language that the predicate, even a nominal one, always comprises a verb in the finite form, denoting the categories of person, mood and tense by means of which predication is expressed: the forms of person connect the predicate with the subject; the mood-forms show in what relation to reality the speaker places the action or state expressed by the predicate; the tense-forms refer it to a definite period of time.

       With regard to its meaning the predicate expresses either processes developing in time or  a qualitative characteristic of the subject. Accordingly there are two main types of the predicate: a) verbal and b) nominal.

       a) A cheerful fire was blazing on the hearth (Dickens).

       b) It was a warm, still night (Hitchens).

       With regard to its structure the predicate may be simple or compound.

       2. A simple predicate is such a predicate in which both the primary lexical meaning and the additional grammatical meanings (person, mood, tense, etc.) are expressed in one word: I saw her stop (Galsworthy).

       3. A compound predicate is such a predicate in which the primary lexical meaning is expressed in one word — a notional word, and the additional grammatical meanings (person, mood, tense, etc) are expressed in another word — a semi-auxiliary (служебное слово): «...My father was a fisherman... (Dickens).

       4. The meaning of the predicate is closely connected with its form. The verbal predicate is primarily simple, but it may also be compound:  ...I cried myself to sleep (Dickens).

       A nominal predicate is always compound:  The Dodsons were certainly a handsome family... (Eliot).