Элективные курсы
элективный курс по английскому языку (10 класс)

                               РАБОЧАЯ  ПРОГРАММА

                                ЭЛЕКТИВНОГО КУРСА

                                   по английскому языку

«СТРАНОВЕДЕНИЕ. С АНГЛИЙСКИМ ВОКРУГ СВЕТА»

               Марочкиной Натальи Александровны,

учителя английского языка высшей квалификационной категории.

                                                                             Рассмотрено на заседании

                                                                             педагогического совета

протокол № 1 от «27»08.2020г.

2020-2021учебный год.

Пояснительная записка

Английский язык входит в общеобразовательную область «Филология». Язык является важнейшим средством общения, без которого невозможно существование и развитие человеческого общества. Происходящие сегодня изменения в общественных отношениях, средствах коммуникации (использование новых информационных технологий) требуют повышения коммуникативной компетенции школьников, совершенствования их филологической подготовки. Все это повышает статус предмета «английский язык» как общеобразовательной учебной дисциплины.

В новых стандартах в преподавании иностранных языков, не ставится единых комплексных, сложных задач по изучению теоретических основ языка, глубинных основ грамматики. Основной акцент делается на развитие коммуникаций, на умение учащихся установить контакт для общения с другими людьми, на овладение языком в процессе общения, умение анализировать свои действия и слова, развитие кругозора для умения заинтересовать собеседника или слушателя, а также на развитие логики для грамотного и последовательного изложения мысли.

  Страноведение является неотъемлемой частью изучения иностранных языков.

  Данный элективный курс построен в соответствии с положением концепции предпрофильного обучения, направлен на обеспечение дифференциации и индивидуализации обучения, и позволяет учащимся практически оценить свои способности и возможности в соответствии с их профессиональными интересами и намерениями на получение профессий в будущем.

  Программа содержит пояснительную записку с изложением цели элективного курса и задач изучения данного курса, формы и методы работы, структурированный учебный материал, учебный план с почасовым распределением времени, календарно-тематическое планирование, ожидаемые результаты обучения, критерии оценивания, информационное обеспечение и приложения.

    Курс имеет линейную структуру, которая предполагает, что все темы подаются последовательно, при этом усвоение каждого раздела не опирается на предыдущий. Поэтому при необходимости можно исключить из программы определенную тему, что не скажется на достижении основных задач курса.

   Сущность обучения заключается в процессе взаимодействия учителя и обучающихся. Необходимо вовлекать обучающихся в активную учебную деятельность по овладению определёнными знаниями, умениями и навыками. Основываясь на этой идее, хотелось бы предположить следующие критерии отбора учебного материала:

• Ориентация на современную жизнь страны.

• Направленность учебного материала на типичные явления культуры.

• Тематическая соотнесенность.

• Актуальность историзма, согласно которому отбираются те исторические сведения, которые известны и интересны.

• Репрезентативность (т.е. обращение к ярким нетипичным фактам).

• Воспитательная (эстетическая) ценность.

• Учет возраста обучаемых и их интересы.

Содержание обучения в данной программе включает в себя:

• Предметное содержание речи (темы).

• Языковые знания и навыки.

• Коммуникативные умения.

Соответственно основными формами контроля над уровнем достижений обучающихся выступают:

1. языковая компетенция (знание лексики, грамматики)
2. речевая компетенция (навыки аудирования, говорения, чтения, письма)
3. социокультурная/межкультурная компетенция

      Основная цель курса — формирование социокультурной/межкультурной компетенции, т. е. способности понимать и интерпретировать особенности чужой и собственной культур в их различных проявлениях, что позволяет обеспечить эффективность коммуникации и адекватное поведение в контексте межкультурного взаимодействия.

Задачи курса:

1. Обогащать знания обучающихся о стране изучаемого языка.
2. Развивать у обучающихся представления о поликультурном мире нашей страны и страны изучаемого языка.
3.  Воспитывать культуру общения и межличностного взаимодействия в ходе совместной деятельности.
4. Способствовать формированию толерантности.
5. Развивать умение использовать иностранный язык как средство культуроведческого образования и саморазвития.
6. Повышать уровень практического владения английским языком, т.е.:

• формировать лексические и грамматические навыки, развивать языковую догадку;
• совершенствовать устную и письменную речь: развивать умения излагать мысли в определённой последовательности, фиксировать и обобщать информацию из различных источников;
• развивать разные виды чтения: ознакомительное, поисковое, изучающее.        

Образовательная  программа элективного курса «Страноведение» по английскому языку предназначена для обучающихся общеобразовательных школ, и относится к числу курсов по выбору для обучающихся по предпрофильной подготовки для 9 классов. Данная программа рассчитана на один год.

Эта программа позволяет осуществить более полный учет интересов, склонностей и способностей учащихся, предоставляет возможность реализации личностно-ориентированного развития в области филологических знаний.

Программа предусматривает связь нескольких учебных дисциплин, таких как история, география, МХК.

        Актуальность содержания мотивирует учащихся к изучению английского языка, способствует развитию учебных, коммуникативных и презентационных умений и навыков исследовательской работы. Обучающиеся должны осознать важность английского языка как средства познания, самореализации и социальной адаптации.

       Основные принципы:

• принцип культуросообразности  - приобщение обучающихся к культуре, традициям, реалиям страны изучаемого языка;
• принцип последовательности - усложнение выполнения творческих заданий: от простого к сложному;
• принцип опоры на межпредметные знания и умения учащихся;
• принцип создания благоприятной  обстановки – обучающиеся  чувствуют себя комфортно на занятиях элективного курса; созданы благоприятные условия для обучения (кабинет иностранного языка, компьютер, проектор, магнитофон);
• принцип творческой направленности – создание условий для творческого самовыражения детей, учитывая их индивидуальные возможности;
•   принцип коллективного творчества - дающий возможность каждому участнику обучения почувствовать свою значимость в совместной деятельности.

    Новизна данного курса заключается в применении современных педагогических технологий, таких как  ИКТ, игровые технологии, метод проектов. Обучение по данному курсу предусматривает использование разных типов уроков, приемов обучения, ТСО, наглядности, в том числе Интернета, большого количества дополнительной литературы, что сделает процесс обучения интересным и будет способствовать повышению уровня учебной мотивации у обучающихся.

    Особенностью курса является то, что он содержит новые, не содержащиеся в базовых программах знания, представляющие познавательный интерес для обучающихся. Следует выделить и коммуникативный модуль, включающий практические занятия, где доминируют чтение и письмо.

  Методы:

• информационно – рецептивный метод, направленный на получение информации
• репродуктивный метод, направленный на закрепление знаний, умений и навыков в результате учебной деятельности;
• эвристический метод, направленный на развитие творческого мышления и воображения;
• исследовательский метод – путь развития личности к знанию пролегает через творческий, исследовательский поиск.
• проблемное обучение – решение проблемных ситуаций.

Формы организации учебной деятельности        

• индивидуальная
• парная
• групповая и коллективная.

  Индивидуальная деятельность осуществляется при работе с текстами учебника, справочника, дополнительной литературы. Работа в парах или в группах малого состава является наиболее комфортной, так как следует распределение ролей.

Такая форма работы как выполнение практических заданий, поиск и обмен информацией в парах наиболее эффективна, т.к. обеспечивает предметное общение. Это делает процесс обучения интересным. Коллективная форма эффективна для активизации мышления при решении проблемных и ситуативных заданий.

При организации проектной деятельности придерживаемся следующих принципов:

Приемы обученияобъяснение, слушание, повторение, запись

• чтение материала самостоятельно, его изучение
• проверка понимания с помощью различных упражнений типа: ответить на вопросы, «правильно - неправильно», закончить предложение, множественный выбор
• подтвердить утверждение предложением из текста, перевести, соотнести и т. д.

   Формы контроля:

• тесты

• устные ответы по теме
• письменное задание (творческие работы, проектные работы)

Личностные, предметные и метапредметные результаты освоения

Личностные результаты: воспитание гражданственности, патриотизма; воспитание нравственных чувств и этического сознания; воспитание уважения к культуре народов англоязычных стран; воспитание ценностного отношения к прекрасному, формирование представлений об эстетических идеалах и ценностях; воспитание трудолюбия, творческого отношения к учению, труду, жизни.

Предметные результаты: вести диалог-расспрос, диалог этикетного характера, комбинированный диалог; читать с целью полного понимания на уровне; интерпретировать информацию; понимать особенности британских национальных и семейных праздников и традиций; сопоставлять реалии стран изучаемого языка и родной страны; представлять реалии своей страны средствами английского языка.

Метапредметные результаты: самостоятельно ставить цели, планировать пути их достижения, умение выбирать наиболее эффективные способы решения учебных и познавательных задач; выделять, обобщать и фиксировать нужную информацию; решать проблемы творческого и поискового характера.

Предметное содержание курса

              Изучение курса рассчитано на 35 учебных занятий.

   Каждый раздел курса может быть рассмотрен как самостоятельный        учебный материал.

   Содержание включает с себя следующие темы:

      Социокультурный портрет Объединенного Королевства Великобритании и Северной Ирландии. Соединенное Королевство Великобритании и Северной Ирландии состоит из четырех исторических национальных областей: Англии, Уэльса, Шотландии и Северной Ирландии.

Особый режим установлен для острова Мэн и Нормандских островов. Великобритания расположена на северо-западе Европы, на Британских островах (остров Великобритания — самый крупный, северо–восточная часть острова Ирландия, остров Мэн, Нормандские острова, многочисленные мелкие: Гебридские, Оркнейские и др.). Великобритания омывается Атлантическим океаном, морями — Северным и Ирландским, проливами Ла-Манш, Па-де-Кале, Северным и Св. Георга. Береговая линия сильно расчленена многочисленными заливами (фьордами на севере и речными эстуариями на юге), образует крупные полуострова Уэльс и Корнуолл.  На севере и западе преобладает горный рельеф — Северо-Шотландское нагорье (самая высокая вершина в Великобритании — Бен-Невис, ее высота 1343 м), Южно–Шотландская возвышенность, Пеннинские и Кембрийские горы. Эти горные системы имеют платообразные вершины и пологие, покрытые растительностью склоны. Восточная и южная части страны заняты холмистыми равнинами, обрамленными каменистыми грядами (куэстами).

В Великобритании — большое число рек, многие из которых судоходны и соединены каналами. Среди крупнейших рек — Темза, Северн, Трент. Север страны изобилует озерами, крупнейшие — Лох-Ней в Северной Ирландии, Лох-Несс и Лох-Ломонд в Шотландии. У северо-западных отрогов Пеннинских гор расположен обширный Озерный Край.

Путешествие по Объединенному Королевству. Географическое положение и  достопримечательности. Символы Соединённого Королевства. Королевская   семья. Основные сведения из истории Англии. Короле́вство Великобрита́ния или королевство Великобритании (англ. the Kingdom of Great Britain) — государство, располагавшееся в Западной Европе и образовавшееся в результате слияния королевств Шотландии и Англии согласно Акту об унии 1707 года. Именовалось так с 1707 по 1800 годы. Два бывших королевства ранее находились в состоянии личной унии, начиная с короля Якова VI Шотландского, ставшего королём Яковом I Английским в 1603. Однако на протяжении 1603—1707 Англия и Шотландия имели различные парламенты и правительства. После одобрения Акта об Унии обоими парламентами, в мае 1707 шотландский парламент был распущен, и страной управляли новые единые парламент и правительство, расположенные в Вестминстере, Лондон. В объединенный парламент вошли 16 пэров и 45 представителей палаты общин от Шотландии. С 1января 1801 в результате объединения с Ирландией Великобритания была преобразована в Соединённое королевство Великобритании и Ирландии.

Географические достопримечательности Шотландии (видеофильм).

Основные исторические сведения. Социокультурный портрет Шотландии. Географические достопримечательности Уэльса и Северной Ирландии.

       Формы государственного управления (таблицы), социокультурные различия.

Средства  массовой информации.   Конституционная монархия. Британский парламент. Маргарет Тэтчер.

Города Великобритании (видеофильмы).  Культурные и промышленные центры.

      Государственные и частные школы; сходства и различия в системах школьного образования Британии и России (видеофильм, презентации обучающихся).

       Национально-культурный фон традиций, обычаев, ценностей, стереотипов                                          поведения в стилях жизни британцев и россиян.  Британия — страна традиций. Консерватизм британцев. Сравнение с традициями в России.  Национально - культурные портреты типичного англичанина и россиянина. Стереотипы в поведении.  Традиционные праздники в Британии и  в России. Традиции в национальных культурах питания англичан и россиян. Сходства и различия.  Хэллоуин. Происхождение праздника. Традиционные формы  проведения праздника Хэллоуин.

        Основные этапы в истории развития искусства и культуры в Британии.

В.Шекспир — выдающийся поэт и драматург. Современные театры и кинотеатры.

        Знаменитые люди. Капитан Скотт  - исследователь Антарктики. И. Ньютон — выдающийся ученый с мировым именем. Джон Констебль — мастер живописного пейзажа.

         Британия — родина многих видов спорта. Популярные виды спорта. Зимняя олимпиада в Сочи.

Учебно-тематическое планирование

Календарно-тематическое планирование

Ресурсы

Временные: 1 год, обучающиеся 9 классов.

Кадровыми ресурсами данного элективного является учитель английского языка.

Методическое сопровождение осуществляется заместителем директора по научно-методической работе.

Материально – технические ресурсы: персональный компьютер, принтер, проектор, образовательные диски, учебники, справочники.

Ожидаемые результаты и социальный эффект.

Личностные результаты обучения:

• формирование мотивации изучения иностранных языков и стремление к самосовершенствованию в образовательной области « Иностранный язык»;

• осознание возможностей самореализации средствами иностранного языка;

• стремление к совершенствованию собственной речевой культуры в целом;

• развитие таких качеств, как воля, целеустремленность, креативность, инициативность, эмпатия, трудолюбие, дисциплинированность;

Метапредметные результаты обучения:

• развитие умения планировать свое речевое и неречевое поведение;

•развитие коммуникативной компетенции, включая умение взаимодействовать с окружающими, выполняя разные социальные роли;

• развитие исследовательских учебных действий, включая навыки работы с информацией: поиск и выделение нужной информации, обобщение и фиксация информации;

В коммуникативной сфере (т. е. владении иностранным языком как средством общения)

• развитие речевой компетенции (говорение, аудирование, чтение и письменная речь)
• формирование языковой компетенции (владение языковыми средствами)
• формирование социокультурной/межкультурной компетенции
• развитие компенсаторной компетенции

 В познавательной сфере:

• готовность и умение осуществлять индивидуальную и совместную проектную работу;

• умение пользоваться справочным материалом (грамматическим и лингвострановедческим справочниками, двуязычным и толковым словарями, мультимедийными средствами);

 В ценностно-ориентационной сфере:

• представление о языке как средстве выражения чувств, эмоций, основе культуры мышления;

• представление о целостном полиязычном, поликультурном мире, осознание места и роли родного и иностранных языков в этом мире как средства общения, познания, самореализации и социальной адаптации;

В трудовой сфере:

• умение рационально планировать свой учебный труд;

• умение работать в соответствии с намеченным планом.

             Изучение этого курса должно обеспечить развитие следующих умений и навыков у учащихся:

• делать устные сообщения по результатам обобщения прочитанного, прослушанного на английском языке;

• собирать, обобщать и систематизировать культуроведческую информацию и представлять ее в виде рефератов, коллективных проектов, таблиц, схем, в форме вопросов и ответов в викторинах;

• составлять план, тезисы прослушанного или прочитанного;

• выполнять индивидуальные и коллективные познавательно-поисковые задания на английском языке;

• излагать на английском языке результаты коллективной и индивидуальной познавательно-поисковой деятельности;

• интерпретировать схематическую (таблицы, диаграммы, графики) и образную (иллюстрации) культуроведческую информацию на английском языке;

• обобщать информацию, полученную при чтении, аудировании и обсуждать ее на английском языке;

• опознавать социокультурные стереотипы в изученном материале;

• выделять основные историко-культурные вехи в развитии стран изучаемого языка;

• работать с основными типами справочной и учебно-справочной страноведческой литературы (словари, атласы, энциклопедии, справочники, информационные буклеты, учебно-справочные издания, включая сайты Интернета и электронную справочную литературу) и использовать их при выполнении культуроведческих проектов и для лично-познавательных целей.

     Значимость данной программы в том, что она приобщает учащихся к изучению культуры страны изучаемого языка, расширяет их кругозор, развивает языковые навыки.

Программа предусматривает не только знакомство с социокультурными портретами англоговорящих стран, но и сравнение их с культурным наследием и реалиями нашей страны, выработку своего отношения к ним.

Курс нацелен на воспитание у учащихся чувства уважения к истории, культуре, традициям и обычаям других народов, готовности к достижению взаимоотношения, нахождению взаимных интересов в межкультурном общении.

Система оценки образовательных достижений.

1. Устное и письменное сообщение должны соответствовать теме и целям изучаемого.

2. Оно должно быть логичным, заключенным и конструктивным.

З. Сообщение должно быть грамотным с использованием необходимой лексики и  грамматических структур.

4. Сообщение должно содержать выражение собственного мнения, личностное отношение.

Критерии оценок:

«5» ставится при условии соблюдения вышеуказанных критериев и наличия анализа и связи с современным материалом. Обязательно должно содержаться выражение своего собственного мнения, допускаются 1-2 языковые ошибки;

«4» — то же, что и при «5», но допускаются 5-6 языковых ошибок;

«3» — сообщение отвечает теме, целям, содержит необходимый информационный материал, детали не обязательны. Допустимо до 8 языковых ошибок. Учащийся нуждается в помощи в виде наводящих вопросов, ключевых слов. Коммуникативная функция достигается;

В неподготовленной устной речи грамматические и лексические ошибки могут быть не учтены, если они не мешают общему пониманию и коммуникации.

Информационное обеспечение

Литература, использованная при подготовке программы:

1. И.Л. Бим. К проблеме профильного обучения иностранным языкам на старшей ступени полной средней школы. Журнал «Иностранные языки в школе».2004. №4.
2. В.В. Сафонова. Программа «Английский язык. Школа с углублённым изучением иностранных языков.10-11 классы». Москва, «Просвещение», 2000.
3. Сборник программ курсов по выбору и элективных курсов по английскому языку. Москва, «Глобус», 2006.
4. Интернет

Литература для учителя и обучающихся:

1. З.А. Ефанова. Нестандартные уроки английского языка, Волгоград, Издательский дом «Корифей», 2005.
2. Е.В. Дзюина. Игровые уроки и внеклассные мероприятия на английском языке, Москва, «Вако», 2007.
3. Н.П. Алёшкина.Учебное пособие с аудиокассетой. В Великобританию без переводчика, Москва, 1993.
4. Е.И.Кисунько, Е.С. Музланова. Устные темы, диалоги и упражнения по английскому языку. Москва, Издательство «Экзамен», 2007.
5. Энциклопедия для детей. Всемирная литература 19 и 20 века. Москва, «Аванта», 2002.
6. Зарубежная литература средних веков. Москва, «Просвещение», 1974.

Образовательные диски:

Диск «Учимся вместе. Английский язык», издательство «Учитель».

Диск «Путь к совершенству» Полный интерактивный курс по английскому языку.

Приложение

GREAT BRITAIN

1. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK) is the official name of the state, which occupies the territory of the British Isles. 2. It consists of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. 3. Great Britain and Ireland are the largest islands and there are many small islands1).

4. The North Sea, the English Channel2) and the Strait of Dover3) separate Great Britain from the continent. 5. The total area of the UK is 244,000 square kilometers. 6. The population of the country is over 57 million people. 7. English is the official language, but some people speak Scottish, Welsh and Irish. 8. The Flag of the UK, known as the Union Jack, is made of three crosses.

9. Geographically the island of Great Britain is divided into two main regions – Lowlands in the south and Highlands in the north and the west. 10. The mountains are not very high4). 11. There are many rivers in Great Britain, but they are not very long. 12. The Severn is the longest river, while the Thames is the deepest. 13. London, the capital of the UK, stands on the Thames. 14. There are many lakes in the country. 15. Lakes of Scotland are called Lochs.

16. The climate in the UK is mild as the country is washed by the seas and the Atlantic Ocean. 17. Summer is usually cool and rainy. 18. Winter is not cold. 19. Snow is rare in winter. 20. The country is famous for its fogs. 21. The weather in Great Britain is very changeable.

22. Great Britain is a highly developed industrial country. 23. It is a large producer of iron and steel products, electronics and machinery, chemicals and textiles. 24. It has a highly developed shipbuilding industry. 25. But Great Britain imports food products and most raw materials, as it is not very rich in mineral resources.

26. The UK is a parliamentary monarchy. 27. The Queen  is the head of the state, but power belongs to the Parliament, which consists of two Houses – the House of Lords and the House of Commons. 28. Everything is done in the Queen's name. 29. The British parliamentary system depends on political parties. 30. The leader of the party in power usually becomes Prime Ministe). 31. The main British political parties are the Conservative Party, the Labour Party and the Liberal Party.

THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN
AND NORTHERN IRELAND

1) The United Kingdom is situated off the northwest coast of Europe between the Atlantic Ocean on the north and the North Sea on the east. 2) It is separated from the Continent by the English Channel, 21 miles wide at its narrowest point, and the Strait of Dover

3) The United Kingdom includes Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man and Channel Islands. 4) Great Britain, the largest island in Europe, contains England, Scotland and Wales. 5) It is separated from Belgium and Holland by the North Sea and from Ireland by the Irish Sea.

6) The climate of Great Britain is mild and there is a good average rainfall. 7) Fogs often prevail in many parts of the country.

8) The surface of England and Ireland is flat, but Scotland and Wales are mountainous. 9) The highest mountain top in the United Kingdom is Ben Nevis in Scotland (4,406 ft). 10) Many parts of the country have beautiful green meadows.

11) The chief rivers are the Thames, the Severn, and the Clyde. 12) The longest river is the Severn. 13) It is in the southwest of England.

14) The United Kingdom has few mineral resources, of which the most important are coal and oil.

15) Metallurgy, chiefly iron and steel, is vital to other key industries, such as shipbuilding, mechanical engineering, the automotive industry, electrical engineering and electronics. 16) The country is the fourth largest exporter of manufactured goods.

17) The main industrial centres are Sheffield and Birmingham, also Manchester, the cotton centre of Great Britain, and Leeds is the country’s wool producing centre.

18) Agriculture remains a major sector of economy. 19) Britain grows wheat, barley, oats, fruit, and vegetables. 20) The largest cities of the country are London, Birmingham, Manchester, Cardiff and Glasgow. 21) The important ports are London, Cardiff and Glasgow.

22) The capital of the country is London, Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland, Cardiff is the capital of Wales, and Belfast is the capital of Northern Ireland.

23) The population of the United Kingdom is over 57 million people.

24) The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy. 25) This means that it has a monarch (Her Majesty the Queen Elizabeth II) as its Head of State. 26) The monarch reigns with the support of Parliament. 27) The main political parties of Great Britain are: the Conservative Party (the Tory Party), the Liberal Party and the Labour Party.

Dialogue

 What are the main cities of Great Britain?

 They are London, Birmingham, Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, Bristol, Leeds, etc.

 Is Great Britain an industrial or an agricultural country?

 Most of the people there live in towns. That’s why Great Britain is mainly an industrial country with highly developed shipbuilding, iron and steel manufacture, heavy and light engineering, coal-mining industries. Computers, electronic equipment, foods, textiles, TV and radio sets are produced there.

 What agricultural products does Britain produce?

 It produces vegetables, wheat, potatoes, some kinds of fruit, which grow in the south. Besides, there are a lot of cattle farms and milk farms there. Great Britain is also famous for its wool.

 What can you say about the political system of Great Britain?

 It is a constitutional monarchy. The head of the state is a king or a queen. In practice, the Sovereign reigns, but doesn't rule. The UK is governed by the Government  body of Ministers who are the leading members of the political party in power. The Ministers are responsible to Parliament that consists of the two Houses; the House of Lords and the House of Commons.

Questions

1. What is the official name of Great Britain?

2. What parts does it consist of?

3. What is the surface of the country?

4. What goods does the British industry produce?

5. Great Britain is a constitutional monarchy, isn’t it?

6. What is the name of the Queen of Great Britain?

7. Who is the Prime Minister of Great Britain now?

LONDON

1) London is the capital of Great Britain. 2) It is situated on the banks of the river Thames. 3) It is the largest city in Great Britain and one of the largest cities in the world. 4) The population of Greater London is more than 11 million people.

5) London dominates the life of Britain. 6) It is the chief port of the country and the most important commercial, manufacturing and cultural centre. 7) There is little heavy industry in Greater London. 8) Clothes, food, planes and cars are produced there.

9) London consists of three parts; the City of London, the West End and the East End.

10) The City is the heart of London. 11) About half a million people work in the City but only about 6000 live there. 12) It is the business and financial centre of the UK with many banks, offices and stock exchange.

13) The West End can be called the centre of London. 14) The main streets and squares, historical monuments and beautiful parks are in the West End. 15) Hyde Park with its Speaker's Corner is also here. 16) In the West End there is Buckingham Palace, which is the Queen’s residence, and the Palace of Westminster, which is the seat of Parliament. 17) There one can see a famous Clock Tower called Big Ben, which is the symbol of London. 18) Big Ben is really the bell, which strikes the hour. 19) The best-known streets in the West End are Whitehall  the political centre with important government offices, Fleet Street where most newspapers have their offices, Downing Street, the London residence of Prime Minister and others. 20) In the West End the largest stores, cinemas, hotels, concert halls, theatres and museums are situated.

21) As for the East End, it is the area where workers and dockers live. 22) It is not very attractive in appearance but very important to the country's commerce.

Dialogue

 What do you know about the Tower of London?

 The Tower of London is also the symbol of London. It was built in the 11th century by William the Conqueror. It served as a fortress, a palace, then a prison, royal treasury. Now there is a museum there.

 What other sights of London do tourists like to visit?

 Tourists are attracted by the greatest work of the famous architect Sir Christopher Wren, St. Paul's Cathedral. It is said to be one of the finest pieces of architecture in Europe. From far away you can see its huge dome with a golden ball and cross on the top. Among the other places of interest is the High gate Cemetery, where many famous people were buried, Trafalgar Square with a tall Nelson Column in it, the British Museum and many others.

LONDON
(второй вариант)

1) London is the capital of Great Britain but it is not only the capital of the country, it is also a huge port, one of the world’s greatest commercial centres, a science city, and the seat of the British Government. 2) Its population is about 7 million people. 3) It is situated upon both banks of the Thames, spanned by seventeen bridges.

4) The most important parts of London are the City of London, the East End, the West End and Westminster.

5) The City, or the Square Mile (another name for the City of London), is the oldest part of London. 6) It got its name from the fact that its area covers about one square mile. 7) The City is the commercial centre of London, and London’s most important firms and banks have offices there. 8) About half a million people work in the Square Mile. 9) But over weekends the City is almost dead.

10) As the name suggests, the West End is the western part of London. 11) The City and the West End are the heart of the capital. 12) Here the visitor will find all the most interesting buildings, theatres, movie houses, museums, picture galleries and gardens.

13) Westminster with Government buildings is the next part of London. 14) There one can see the Westminster Palace, the Westminster Abbey, and the Clock Tower with the great bell – Big Ben.

15) An alternative title for the Houses of Parliament is the Palace of Westminster. 16) It includes the House of Lords, the House of Commons, Westminster Hall, the Clock Tower which houses «Big Ben» – the clock named after Sir Benjamin Hall under whose direction the construction of the clock was conducted. 17) A light is always shown at the top of the clock Tower when Parliament is sitting at night.

18) Westminster Abbey is the place where coronation of nearly all kings and queens has taken place. 19) Many of them are buried here as well as some other famous people of the country (G. Chaucer, I. Newton, Ch. Dickens, R. Kipling, etc.).

20) Two architectural masterpieces are situated within the City: St. Paul’s Cathedral and the Tower of London. 21) St. Paul’s Cathedral was built in the 17th century by the well-known English architect Christopher Wren. 22) The Tower of London was built in the 11th century. 23) It was used as a fortress, a palace and a prison. 24) Now it is a museum.

25) Trafalgar Square is the geographical centre of London. 26) It was named in the memory of Admiral Nelson’s victory at the battle of Trafalgar in 1803. 27) The tall Nelson’s Column stands in the middle of the square.

28) Opposite the Nelson's Column is the National Gallery and the National Portrait Gallery. 29) They contain the finest art collections in the world. 30) Not far from the National Gallery is the British Museum famous for its rich library (about 7000000 books)

31) Tourists visiting London are usually eager to see Buckingham Palace, the official London residence of the Queen and the King, and the colorful ceremony of changing the guard before the Palace.

32) There are many parks in London: Hyde Park, Regent’s Park and Kensington Park. 33) Hyde Park is a place where Londoners like to rest and where crowds of people may be seen listening to the Hyde Park speakers at the Speakers’ Corner.

34) The East End is an industrial district of London. 35) There are many factories and the Port of London there. 36) But the most famous house in London is undoubtedly No. 10, Downing Street. 37) It is a little street on the west side of Whitehall. 38) It is the official residence of the Prime Minister.

Questions

1. Have you been to London?

2. What kind of interesting places are there in London?

3. Why is the City called the business centre of London?

4. What is the West End famous for?

5. Why is the central square in London named Trafalgar Square?

6. What place of interest would you like to see first? Why?

THE CITIES OF GREAT BRITAIN

Coventry is our Twin-City

1. Coventry is a big industrial and cultural centre of Great Britain. 2. It is situated not far from London. 3. It is an old city. 4. The Symbol of Coventry is Lady Godiva who was the beautiful wife of Lord of Coventry in the 11-th century. 5. The people of Coventry honor her deeply because she tried to make their life better. 6. In 1940 the city was cruelly bombed by the fascists and greatly destroyed at that time. 7. Coventry was the first city which understood the sufferings of the people of Stalingrad in 1942–1943 and sent the best wishes and greetings to Stalingrad. 8. Since then they have become twin-cities. 9. They exchange delegations, students; they struggle for peace in the world. 10. There are many places of interest in Coventry. 11. You can see wonderful parks, lawns, gardens with a lot of flowers everywhere. 12. The plants and factories of that city are well-known all over the world. 13. The workers keep them clean and tidy. 14. The manufacturing and engineering products, cars and automobiles are exported to many countries. 15. The people of Coventry are very kind and hospitable. 16. They are proud of their past and the present of their city.

Questions and answers

1. Are you proud of the past of Volgograd?

– Yes, I am. The people of Stalingrad suffered much in 1942–43. But the Army and the people won the victory over fascism at Stalingrad. That was the beginning of the end of the fascists.

2. Did your grandfather take part in the Great Patriotic War?

– Yes, he did. / No, he didn't.

LONDON'S ART GALLERIES

1. London is the world's cultural centre. 2. There are many museums, theatres and art galleries in it. 3. If you are fond of painting and sculpture, you may visit some of London’s Art Galleries. 4. On the north side of Trafalgar Square there stands a long low building in a classical style. 5. This is the National Gallery, which contains the best collection of pictures. 6. The collection was begun in 1824. 7. The National Gallery is rich in painting by Italian masters such as Raphael1, Veronese2 and others. 8. It also contains works by the great masters of all European schools of art, for example, works by Rembrandt, Rubens, Van Dyck and many others. 9. Here you can admire the pictures of Turner, an outstanding English painter known all over the world. 10. If you see his masterpieces you will never forget them. 11. Just behind the National Gallery, stands the National Portrait Gallery in which the visitor can see portraits of famous British people such as Chaucer, Shakespeare, Cromwell and a lot of others. 12. The National Gallery of British art is known as the Tate Gallery. 13. It is one of the best art museums in the world. 14. The Tate Gallery was built in 1897. 15. That year Sir Henry Tate, an English merchant and art patron gave his personal paintings and the building to house them to the nation. 16. At that time Sir Henry Tate's collection consisted of 65 paintings and two sculptures. 17. Now the Tate Gallery has become the national collection of British painting of all periods and also a collection of modern foreign painting and sculpture.

References

1. Raphael ['raefeil]

2. Veronese [verǝ'neizi]

3. Van Dyck [vжn'daik]

Questions and answers

1. Have you ever been to an art gallery or an art museum?

– Yes, I have. I've been to Volgograd Art Museum. There is a fine collection of modern Russian artists.

2. Are you fond of art?

– Yes, I am.

3. What Russian artists do you know?

– I know the famous Russian artists Repin, Surikov, but my favourite painter is Aivazovsky. He devoted his pictures to the sea.

AN OUTSTANDING PERSON OF GREAT BRITAIN

Margaret Thatcher

1. Margaret Thatcher is well known all over the world. 2. She was the Prime Minister of Great Britain for 10 years. 3. She was the leader of the Conservative Party. 4. You can't imagine the modern history of Great Britain without Margaret Thatcher. 5. She is deeply respected by the people of her country. 6. The policy of her government was popular in Great Britain. 7. Margaret Thatcher was sometimes called an «Iron Lady» for her strong character, will and principles. 8. Margaret Thatcher graduated from the Oxford University and was given the title of the Bachelor of natural sciences. 9. She always took part in social activities. 10. All her life she worked hard, read newspapers and journals, analysed the situations. 11. Her knowledge of the society is very deep. 12. Margaret Thatcher is a brilliant speaker. 13. She can make all her listeners believe her. 14. Margaret Thatcher took her post as prime minister very seriously and was very strict to her ministers. 15. Margaret Thatcher left the post of Prime Minister according to her wish. 16. But she is active in political and social life even now. 17. She visited our country several times, had talks with our ministers and deputies. 18. Margaret Thatcher understands the importance of the reforms in Russia and wishes all the best to our people.

FAMOUS PEOPLE OF GREAT BRITAIN (второй вариант)

1. It's a great task to name all Englishmen who have worldwide fame.

2. I would like to speak about one of them, about my favourite writer Walter Scott.                     3. He is a creator of the English historical novel. 4. His novels are very exciting.

5. Walter Scott was born in 1771 in Edinburgh, Scotland. 6. He loved his native land and was greatly interested in its past. 7. He first became famous as a poet. 8. In 1814 his first novel «Waverley» appeared. 9. During the next years Scott published his finest novels «Ivanhoe», «Rob Roy» and others. 10. His knowledge of the history of his people, their customs, folklore made past ages live again in his novels. 11. His noble cha-racters won the love of the reading public. 12. His best novels were translated into many languages. 13. Through his stories he made Scotland known and loved by the world.

14. Walter Scott died in 1832. 15. There is a memorial to Walter Scott in the Poet's Corner in Westminster Abbey.

16. Charles Darwin is one of the greatest scientists. 17. He was bom in 1809. 18. When he was only eight he was already studying the plants he saw. 19. His father wanted his son to be a doctor. 20. But Charles did not want to and he did not stay at Edinburgh University. 21. Then he was sent to Cambridge University. 22. He continued to collect insects even there. 23. This gave him real pleasure. 24. When a student Darwin sailed as a naturalist with a British expedition on the «Beagle» which made a voyage round the world. 25. Darwin studied many different kinds of plants and animals in all parts of the world. 26. He saw that all living things had developed through long ages from simpler forms of life. 27. In 1859 Darwin published his main work «The Origin of Species», in which he destroyed the belief that all species of animals and plants were created by God. 28. Twelve years later Darwin published his second book «The Descent of Man». 29. He applied his theory of evolution to the human race.

30. Darwin's theory of evolution marked the beginning of a new period in the deve-lopment of biology.  31.Darwin died in 1882 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

FAMOUS PEOPLE OF GREAT BRITAIN

1. Great Britain is a great country. 2. In the 17th – 19th centuries Great Britain was the most industrially developed power. 3. And Great Britain has always been famous for its well-known writers, artists and men of science.

4. I would like to tell you about Charles Robert Darwin, one of the most outstanding scientists in the world. 5. It was he who originated the theory of evolution by natural selection.

6. Charles Robert Darwin was born in 1809 in a family of a doctor. 7. His father wanted Charles to be a doctor too. 8. But Charles didn't want to and he didn't complete his medical training at Edinburgh University. 9. Then he was sent to Cambridge University where he got a degree. 10. At the age of twenty he had an opportunity to travel by sea as a naturalist on the «Beagle» which made a voyage round the world. 11. Darwin had got a chance to study many different kinds of animals and plants in all parts of the world. 12. He saw that all living creatures had developed from simpler forms of life. 13. Having returned from that voyage round the world Charles Darwin published his main book «The Origin of Species». 14. In the book he destroyed the belief that God created all living creatures. 15. Charles Darwin became a real scientist.

16. Soon Darwin got married and retired. 17. He lived in the country Kent. 18. He published a lot of books and papers which made him famous all over the world. 19. The Great English natural historian, geologist, thinker, botanist and zoologist of remarkable power Charles Robert Darwin died in 1882 at the age of 73. 20. He was buried in Westminster Abbey.

STRATFORD-UPON-AVON

1) Stratford-upon-Avon is a town 94 miles northwest of London. 2) It is nice to think that Shakespeare was born right in the heart of England and in the midst of the country that is so typically English. 3) There are beautiful woods, green fields, a quiet gentle river – the winding Avon – and lovely houses, black and white with thatched roofs. 4) In Henley Street stands an ordinary one-storeyed wooden house, where Shakespeare was born, and which now belongs to the British government. 5) The town has a public library rich in Shakespeareana, an art gallery with many Shakespeareana paintings, the fine Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, and the Shakespeare fountain.

6) Stratford-upon-Avon, a small English town is known all over the world as the birthplace of the greatest English poet and playwright William Shakespeare.

7) Shakespeare was born on April 23, 1564. 8) At the age of 23 Shakespeare went to London to seek his fortune in a company of actors. 9) First he worked as an actor and then as a reviser and writer of plays. 10) Shakespeare’s plays are «The Comedy of Errors», «The Taming of the Shrew», «Romeo and Juliet», «A Midsummer Night’s Dream», «Much Ado about Nothing», «Hamlet», «Othello», «King Lear», «Macbeth» and others.

11) Shakespeare’s plays do not grow old with time. 12) There are some common phrases which the English owe to William Shakespeare, and they have now become part of the everyday language of Englishmen:

«All’s well that ends well».

«All that glistens is not gold».

«Brevity is the soul of wit».

«To be, or not to be, that is the question».

13) The last few years of his life Shakespeare spent in Stratford. 14) Shakespeare died at the age of fifty-two on April 23, 1616. 15) He was buried in the church at Stratford on the banks of the Avon.

16) Although Stratford-upon-Avon remains a small market town, it has now become a gathering-place of all nations. 17) People show their love for the great writer and every year on April 23 they come to Stratford and take part in celebrating Shakespeare’s birthday.

TRADITIONS AND CUSTOMS IN GREAT BRITAIN

1) Every nation and every country has its own customs and traditions. 2) If you arrive in Great Britain, you’ll hear the word «tradition» everywhere. 3) Englishmen are proud of their traditions and carefully keep them up. 4) To this day an English family prefers a house with a garden to a flat in a modern house with central heating. 5) Englishmen have sentimental love for things because they are old. 6) They never throw away old things.

7) The British Parliament consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. 8) In the House of Lords there are two rows of benches for lords and a sack of wool for the Lord Chancellor to sit on it. 9) This is so because in the old times wool made England rich and powerful.

10) The only inhabitants of the Tower now are ravens. 11) The birds with clipped wings are carefully guarded. 12) There is a legend that the Tower will fall if it loses its ravens.

13) Englishmen keep to their traditions even in meals. 14) Porridge is the dish Englishmen are traditionally fond of. 15) Besides, the British are great tea-drinkers. 16) «Five o’clock tea» is a national habit.

17) Holidays are especially rich in old traditions and are different in Scotland, Wales and England. 18) Christmas is a great English national holiday, and in Scotland it is not kept at all. 19) But six days later, on New Year’s Eve the Scotch begin to enjoy themselves. 20) When the clock strikes twelve, the doors are open wide to let the Old Year out and the New Year in. 21) It was believed the first person to visit one’s house on New Year’s Day could bring good or bad luck. 22) Usually a dark-haired man as the first footer was chosen, and never a woman for she would bring bad luck. 23) The first-footer used to have three articles: a piece of coal to wish warmth, a piece of bread to wish food, and a silver coin to wish health. 24) This pleasing custom is still observed in Scotland.

25) The annual National Eisteddfod is an old Welsh tradition. 26) It is a festival of songs and poems. 27) It lasts a week and the competitions are listened to by thousands of people. 28) Such an eisteddfod is a great demonstration of a people’s culture.

29) A new national tradition was born in Britain. 30) Every year a large number of ancient motorcars and motorcycles drive from London to Brighton. 31) Veteran cars are those which were made before the year 1904. 32) Englishmen keep up the old «veterans».

33) These are some of the traditions of which Great Britain has so many.

34) Besides public holidays British people observe certain traditions on such days as Pancake Day, Bonfire Night, St. Valentine’s Day, April Fool’s Day, Mother’s Day.

HOLIDAYS IN GREAT BRITAIN

1. There are a lot of holidays in Great Britain: Christmas, New Year, Halloween, Easter and many more. 2. English people celebrate the Christmas Day on December 25. 3. People try to be with their families on that day. 4. They make or buy Christmas cards and send them to their friends, grandparents, cousins, aunts, and uncles. 5. They decorate the Christmas tree with coloured lights and toys. 6. One of the most important Christmas traditions is giving presents. 7. Family members wrap up their gifts and leave at the bottom of the Christmas tree to be found on Christmas morning. 8. People say that at night Father Christmas puts presents into the stockings, which children usually hang on their beds. 9. Halloween means «holy evening» and takes place on October 31. 10. This holiday is particularly connected with witches and ghosts. 11. Usually people or children dress up in strange costumes and pretend they are witches. 12. They cut horrible faces in pumpkins, potatoes and put a candle inside, play different funny games. 13. On December 31 people usually visit their friends. 14. There is a lot of dancing and eating. 15. In Scotland people bring a piece of coal for good luck in the New Year. 16. At Easter children eat chocolate Easter eggs. 17.Sometimes parents hide them in the house or in the garden and the children look for them. 18. There are also some public holidays in Great Britain: Mother's Day, Father's Day and St. Valentine's Day. 19. People celebrate St. Valentines Day on February 14. 20. They buy or make Valentines cards and send them to people they love. 21. They should not write their names on the cards. 22. Those who get them must guess who sends them.

Questions and answers

1. What is the traditional Christmas meal in Great Britain?

The traditional Christmas meal is roast turkey and Christmas pudding.

2. How do the children celebrate Mother's Day?

On Mother's Day children help their mothers at home and give or send them cards and presents.

ENGLISH MEALS

1. The Englishmen usually have 4 meals a day. 2. The traditional English breakfast is a full meal! 3. Some people especially in winter time like to have cereal with butter or milk, or cream. 4. Then come bacon and eggs. 5. They like toast with butter and marmalade. 6. Lunch is a light meal and taken at midday. 7. Most people of the family are out at midday. 8. They bring their own sandwiches and some fruit and make themselves a cup of tea or coffee in the office. 9. When Big Ben strikes half past twelve or one o'clock it is time for lunch. 10. If it is warm many people go out and sit on a bench in a park or public square and eat their sandwiches there. 11. English children take packed lunches to school. 12. They like fruit, cheese and ham sandwiches and juice. 13. They usually have dinner in the evening when all members of the family are at home. 14. A favourite English dish is beefsteak with roast potatoes. 15. The people like fish, often with chips and vegetables. 16. A traditional sweet is an apple with fresh cream. 17. English puddings are usually served with some sauce. 18. If the Englishmen want to see their friends they usually invite them home to tea. 19. They are fond of tea and make it strong and tasty. 20. On special occasion the family may go out to the tea-shop or the cafe and order so called «high tea» consisting of fish and chips, or boiled ham and salad and then bread and butter and cakes. 21. Supper is often a drink of milk or juice.

Questions and answers

1. How many meals do you have a day?

    I usually have 3 meals a day.

2. What do you have for dinner?

    I usually have a plate of soup and fried potatoes with cucumbers.

3. What is your favourite dish?

    My favourite dish is roast chicken.

THE CLIMATE IN GREAT BRITAIN

1. As a rule the climate of a country depends on its geographical position. 2. Great Britain is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean and by the North Sea. 3. So its climate is much milder than that in a continental country. 4. It is usually rather warm in winter but cool in summer. 5. The Gulf Stream, a warm oceanic current, influences the climate in Great Britain most of all. 6. Due to the Gulf Stream the climate differs in different parts of the UK. 7. The Eastern part of the country is cooler and drier than the Western part. 8. It is due to the nearness of the continent and to the fact that hills and mountains shut out the mild winds blowing from the Atlantic.

9. It is never too cold or too hot in Great Britain. 10. It doesn't often snow in winter especially in the south of the UK. 11. But it often rains all the year and there are few sunny days in winter.

12. Great Britain is a very rainy and foggy island. 13. Fogs occur very often in winter and autumn. 14. Sometimes they are so dense that navigation and traffic are stopped. 15. At the fog the air is hardly fit for breathing.

Questions and answers

1. What does the climate of a country depends on as a rule? – От чего, как правило, зависит климат страны?  As a rule the climate of a country depends on its geographical position. – Как правило, климат страны зависит от ее географического положения.

2. Does the climate differ in different parts of the United Kingdom due to the Gulf Stream or any thing else? – Отличается ли климат разных частей Великобритании из-за Гольфстрима или какого-либо другого фактора?  I believe that the climate differs in different parts of the United Kingdom due to the Gulf Stream. – Я полагаю, что климат неодинаков в разных частях Соединенного Королевства из-за Гольфстрима.

3. Do you like the rainy weather or the sunny weather? – Вам нравится дождливая или солнечная погода?  I live in Volgograd, I like the sun so I don't like rains and like only the sunny weather. – Я живу в Волгограде, я люблю солнце, не люблю дожди, и мне нравится только солнечная погода.

EDUCATION

I. 1. The educational system in Great Britain is divided into 3 chief parts: primary, secondary and higher. 2. Parallel to the state system, there are private schools. 3. Primary education consists of infant school for children aged 5–7 and junior school for children aged 8–11. 4. Children here study Arithmetic, Reading, Nature Study, Geography and other subjects. 5. Secondary schools are grammar, technical, modern, and comprehensive. 6. Children who are interested in literature, languages, history go to grammar schools. 7. Those who are good at mathematics, physics and chemistry go to technical schools. 8. Modern schools give a more vocational education. 9. Comprehensive schools offer their pupils all sided education.

10. There are about 50 universities in Great Britain. 11. There are colleges besides.

II. 12. Secondary school system of the USA also consists of public and private schools. 13. The federal Government has no direct control over schools. 14. Each state makes its own laws for its educational system. 15. Education is compulsory for every child from the age of 6 up to the age of 16. 16. Children spend 6 years at elementary school, 3 years at junior high school and 3 years at high school.

17. The pupils enter elementary school at the age of 6. 18. They study English, Arithmetic, Geography and History of the USA, Nature Study. 19. High school prepares young people either for work or for more advanced study in a college or university. 20. An important part of high school life is extra-curricular activities.

III. 21. Education in Russia is compulsory for every child from the age 6–7 up to 17. 22. The tuition is free of charge. 23. But recently new schools, private ones, have appeared in our country. 24. There are schools of general education, specialized schools, gymnasiums, where pupils get profound knowledge on a high professional level. 25. Much attention is paid to foreign languages. 26. Young people can get secondary education at different kinds of vocational or technical schools and colleges, where they receive a specialty.

27. Higher education in our country includes universities, institutes, and academies. 28. Many institutes have evening and extramural departments.

Questions and answers

1. Do children in different countries study the same subjects at primary  school?

 – We can say so, because all children are taught to read, write, count, sing and dance.

2. Is secondary education in Russia, received at vocational schools the same as at general schools?

– Absolutely. Vocational school leavers can enter an institute as well.

SPORTS IN GREAT BRITAIN

1. People all over the world are fond of sports and games. 2. The English are great lovers of sports too. 3. Many kinds of sport were born in England. 4. The English have a proverb, «All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy». 5. They think that everyone will do his work better if he plays any sport game. 6. Really, sport makes people healthy, more organized and better disciplined. 7. Football is the most popular team game in Great Britain. 8. Long, long ago a traveller visited England and saw a football match for the first time. 9. And now it is played everywhere: in the schools, in the universities and colleges. 10. There are many amateur teams for young people in all parts of the country. 11. They pay much attention to professional football in Great Britain. 12. There are professional football clubs in every town. 13. In summer the English national sport is cricket. 14. It is usually played in boys' schools. 15. But cricket is not so popular as football. 16. Englishmen like to play rugby football too. 17. In rugby the player may hold the ball in his hands and run with it. 18. The ball in rugby football is not round, it is oval. 19. The game of tennis is played by great numbers of people. 20. Some of them join a tennis club, others go to one of the public tennis courts. 21. It is often played on a grass court. 22. «Health is above wealth» the English proverb says.

Questions

1. What national English sport games do you know?

2. Are you fond of sport?

3. What is your favourite sport?

4. What kind of sport do you go in for?

5. Do you think it's necessary to do morning exercises? Why?

THE CONSTITUTION AND THE BILL OF RIGHTS

The former colonies, now «the United States of America», first operated under an agreement called the Articles of Confederation (1781). It was soon clear that this loose agreement among the states was not working well. The central, federal government was too weak, with too few powers for defence, trade, and taxation. In 1787, therefore, delegates from the states met in Philadelphia. They wanted to revise the Articles, but they did much more than that. They wrote a completely new document, the Constitution, which after much argument, debate, and compromise was finished in the same year and officially adopted by the thirteen states by 1790.

The Constitution, the oldest still in force in the world, sets the basis form of government: three separate branches, each one having powers («checks and balances») over the others. It specifies the powers and duties of each federal branch of government, with all other powers and duties belonging to the states. The Constitution has been repeatedly amended to meet the changing needs of the nation, but it is still the «supreme law of the land». All governments and governmental groups, federal, state, and local, must operate within its guidelines. The ultimate power under the Constitution is not given to the President (the executive branch), or to the Supreme Court (the judicial branch). Not does it rest, as in many other countries, with a political group of party. It belongs to «We the People», in fact and in spirit.

In this way, Americans first took for themselves the liberties and rights that elsewhere were the privileges of an elite few. Americans would manage their own laws. And, of course, they would make their own mistakes.

They stated in the first ten Constitutional Amendments, known together as the Bill of Rights, what they considered to be fundamental rights of any American. Among these rights are the freedom of religion, speech, and the press, the right of peaceful assembly, and the right to petition the government to correct wrongs. Other rights guarded the citizens against unreasonable searches, arrests, and seizures of property, and established a system of justice guaranteeing orderly legal procedures. This included the right of trial by jury, that is, being judged by one's fellow citizens.

The great pride Americans have in their Constitution, their almost religious respect for it comes from the knowledge that these ideals-freedoms and rights were not given to them by a small ruling class. Rather, they are seen as the natural «unalienable» rights of every American, which had been fought for and won. They cannot be taken away by any government, court, official or law.

CONGRESS, PRESIDENT AND FEDERAL DEPARTMENTS

Congress, the legislative branch of the federal government, is made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives. There are 100 senators, two from each state. One third of the Senators are elected every two years for six-year terms of office. The Senators represent all of the people in a state and their interests.

The House has 435 members. They are elected every two years for two-year terms. They represent the population of «congressional districts» into which each state is divided. The number of Representatives from each state is based upon its population. For instance, California, the state with the largest population, has 45 Representatives, while Delaware has one. There is no limit to the number of terms a Senator or a Representative may serve.

Almost all elections in the United States follow the «winner-take-all» principle: the candidate who wins the largest number of votes in a Congressional district is the winner.

Congress makes all laws, and each house of Congress has the power to introduce legislation. Each can also vote against legislation passed by the other. Because legislation only becomes law if both houses agree, compromise between them is necessary. Congress decides upon taxes and how money is spent. In addition, it regulates commerce among the states and with foreign countries. It also sets rules for the naturalization of foreign citizens.

The President of the United States is elected every four years to a four-year term of office, with no more than two full terms allowed. As is true with Senators and Representatives, the   President  is  elected  directly by  the  voters (through state electors). In other words, the political party with the most Senators and Representatives does not choose the President. This means that the President can be from one party and the majority of those in the House of Representatives or Senate (or both) from another. This is not uncommon.

Thus, although one of the parties may win a majority in the midterm elections (those held every two years), the president, even though his party may not have a majority in either house. Such a result could easily hurt his ability to get legislation through Congress, which must pass all laws, but this is not necessarily so. In any case, the President's policies must be approved by the House of Representatives and the Senate before they can become law. In domestic as well as in foreign policy, the President can seldom count upon the automatic support of Congress, even when his own party has a majority in both the Senate and the House. Therefore, he must be able to convince Congressmen, the Representatives and senators, of his point of view.

He must bargain and compromise. This is a major difference between the American system and those in which the nation's leader represents the majority party of parties, that is parliamentary systems. Within the Executive Branch, there are a number of executive departments of State, Treasury, Defence Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labour, Health and Human Resourses, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, and Education. Each department is established by law, and, as their names indicate, each is responsible for a specific area. The head of each department is appointed by the President. These appointments, however, must be approved by the Senate. None of these Secretaries, as the department heads are usually called, can also be serving in Congress or in another part of the government. Each is directly responsible to the President and only servos as long as the President wants him or her to. They can best be seen, therefore, as Presidential assistants and advisers.