Учебно-методическое пособие для старшеклассников "География. Мир карт".
учебно-методическое пособие по английскому языку (10, 11 класс) на тему

Ж. В. Ваганова

GEOGRAPHY AND MAPS

Иностранный язык (английский)

Учебно-методическое пособие для учащихся старших классов

     Учебно-методическое пособие предусматривает совершенствование языковых навыков и умений, а также освоение лексического запаса, необходимого для чтения и понимания специальной литературы, проведения интегрированных уроков. Пособие предназначено для аудиторной и самостоятельной работы и предлагает тексты для чтения с различными типами заданий.

Пояснительная записка

Данное учебное пособие предназначено для старшеклассников и направлено на расширение знаний в области английского языка для решения социально-коммуникативных задач. Основная цель пособия – развитие и совершенствование навыков различных видов чтения на английском языке. Пособие разработано на основе материалов современных оригинальных источников.

Каждый раздел включает в себя текст на английском языке, а также систему заданий,  выстроенных в порядке возрастания трудностей:

1. Упражнения, способствующие снятию лексических трудностей, развитию ассоциативных связей между словами, логическому анализу, а также повышению интереса к изучаемому материалу.

2. Задания на извлечение основной информации, понимание структуры и организации содержания текста.

3. Задания, акцентирующие внимание на ключевых словах и словосочетаниях; большое внимание уделяется работе над словообразованием и освоением специальных терминов. Раздел включает упражнения на овладение активным словарем, узнавание и закрепление контекстного значения слов.

4. Задания на проверку уровня понимания текста, способствующие развитию интегрированных речевых навыков: умения выделить главное, высказать свое мнение. Упражнения позволяют использовать текст в качестве языковой содержательной опоры для развития навыков устной речи, а также соотнести его содержание с собственными знаниями и имеющимся опытом.

5. Задания, развивающие навыки осуществления смысловой компрессии текста и передачи его краткого содержания с опорой на план и ключевые слова, выявления отношения к прочитанному материалу; ряд упражнений подразумевает самостоятельную работу по поиску и оформлению дополнительной информации по тематике прочитанного текста.

Unit 1. Cartography

Before you read

Task 1. Read and comment:

“The world may be known without leaving the house”. (Lao-Tzu).

Task 2. Guess the meaning of the following words:

 Technology, globe, navigating, distribution, phenomena, generalization, collect, create, method, virtual, image, design, promotion, human, landscape.

Vocabulary

Task 3. Study the following words:

accurate (adj) - точный, четкий                locate (v) – располагать(ся), размещать

application (n) – применение                    medieval (adj) - средневековый

boundary (n) - граница, рубеж                 perceive (v) - воспринимать, осознавать

complexity (n) – сложность                       relevant (adj) - соответствующий

convey (v) – передавать, сообщать           scale (n) - масштаб, шкала, размах

diverse (adj)- разнообразный                     shape (n) - форма, фигура

eliminate (v) - устранять, исключать        spatial (adj) - пространственный

enhance (v) - увеличивать, усиливать      surface (n) - поверхность, покрытие

feature (n) - особенность, черта                terrain (n) – местность, территория

flat (adj) - плоский, ровный                       three-dimensional (adj) – трехмерный

infinite (adj) – бесконечный                      trait (n) - признак, свойство

up-to-date (adj) – современный, соответствующий новым требованиям

Task 4.  Transcribe and pronounce the following words correctly. Practice their reading:

Cartography, representation, scientist, hurricane, relationship, technique, media, orchestrate, audience, digital, variety, coverage, detail, measurable, contradictory.

Cartography

Task 5. Read the text and point out the information that is new to you. Be ready to do the tasks that follow the text.

     Cartography is the art, science and technology of making maps, together with the study of maps as scientific documents and works of art. This includes all kinds of maps, and they may represent the whole or part of the earth or any heavenly body, and be drawn at any scale. It also includes globes and three-dimensional models.

     Cartography  (from Greek Χάρτης, khartes = papyrus (paper) and graphein = to write) or map-making is the study and practice of crafting representations of the Earth upon a flat surface. The world has already been mapped for the most part, but professional map makers no longer just create maps of places, that have never been mapped before. Think of all the different uses of maps that you’ve seen: tourists navigating around a new city, mountain bikers planning their next ride, businesspeople figuring out where to build a new store, scientists identifying all the different types of plants and animals in a region, weather reporters showing the paths of hurricanes. Cartographers and geographic information professionals are working to collect up-to-date information and display them on maps and computers, to help a diverse range of users do an infinite number of things. Maps are used to locate places on the surface of the earth, to show patterns of distribution, to discover relationships between different phenomena by analyzing map information.

     Cartography combines science, aesthetics and technique. The fundamental problems of traditional cartography are:

• To set the map's agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing. Traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as political boundaries.
• Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections.
• Eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the map's purpose. This is the concern of generalization.
• Reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped.
• Orchestrate the elements of the map to convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of map design.

     Cartography is a growing field due to an increasing interest in accurate, digital geographic information. Cartographers collect spatial data and map the Earth's continually changing surface. They create maps for a variety of purposes, and their technical skills can be transferred across different sectors, including business, government and industry.  

     In the process of the collection of geodata, there are several subjects (quality criteria) that need to be addressed by the cartographer:  

     • Accuracy: data should be both geometrically and semantically accurate. Geometrical accuracy is achieved, if the position and shape of the provided object complies with reality. Semantic accuracy is given, if the elements of the map and their description correctly represent the meaning of their real pendants.

     • Coverage: traditionally, coverage was given, if a map represented all facts of geographic reality that are relevant to the purpose and scale of this specific map. Now GIS can store data in unlimited detail.

     • Actuality: the geographic reality of our world changes, and with it maps have to change. With the invention of online-maps that are generated directly from GIS, it has become possible to create maps that do not only follow geographic reality with short latency, but also to provide real-time map data.  

     • Neutrality: geographic reality is not always objectively measurable, especially when it comes to the reproduction of social reality (like borders of countries), there might be different contradictory interests of defining geographic information.   Neutral cartography can be achieved, if the cartographers are free of political or economic influences in their work, and the individual contributions are traceable, so they can be reverted when misuse occurs. If there are really disputed geographic issues, it is generally more prudent to mention the dispute and leave the affected data undecided, than to make a decision for one side or another.

     When drawing and designing a map, it is important to keep these issues in mind.

     Cartography deals with a variety of disciplines and several specialities exist within the field of cartography:  

     The history of mapping and cartography: The form of maps throughout time, from the earliest representation of a place on a piece of stone, through medieval maps and charts, including the Great Explorers and the methods employed to generate maps in the past.

     Remote sensing:  The means by which spatial and environmental data about the earth can be acquired by sensors located in satellites and aircraft.

     Topographic surveying: The principles and methods by which topographic features (roads, paths, houses) may be accurately measured on the ground and plotted as maps.

     Cartographic design and communication: The way in which maps are designed to communicate effectively their contained detail to the map user. How the use of colour, symbolisation, style, etc. affects the way we perceive the information. Cartographic design involves all publication mediums, from paper to the Web.

     GIS:  Geographical Information Systems combine applied geography, cartography and computing. It is a way of using digital maps to see, model and analyse what is happening in the world.

     Map production:    The methods employed to generate maps for a wide variety of publication mediums, from paper to onscreen maps. Map production has changed dramatically in the last few years with new technologies enabling the cartographer to broaden their design ideas and the application of maps.

     Web design:    The effective design, generation and publication of material on the World wide web.

     Cartography is such a varied subject, that an interest in a wide range of subjects will help you on your path to surveying, designing, manipulating spatial data and working with maps.

     Geography is a key subject for cartographers, as knowledge, skills and understanding relating to spatial information, natural and human environments and undertaking geographic enquiry are extremely useful.

     Art and design technology: A large part of modern commercial cartography involves the design and generation of maps, from the World Wide web to folded paper maps. Good design skills are very useful if you wish to work in map design.

     Mathematics: This is a subject that can be very useful, depending on the area of cartography that you wish to work in. Although mathematical skills are not necessary to be a cartographic designer, to work in surveying or GIS they are important.

     Computing: Good IT skills are a great benefit, if you want to have a career in either cartography or GIS, but it really depends on the type of job you are looking for. You may find yourself working with 3D visualisations and developing virtual landscapes on the world wide web, or you may be drawing pictorial maps of foreign cities.

     Languages: A grounding in a second language is always very useful, when wishing to work in the international market. Cartographers with more than one language are always sought after and as such there are often greater opportunities to work overseas.

     The most important thing you need to be a cartographer is enthusiasm about maps and about geographical information. The subject is so varied, that as long as you have basic geographical knowledge and skills, you will find a discipline within the world of maps that suits your skills and education.
Leisure and tourism, environmental science and geology have an obvious link with cartography, and so do the subjects of business planning, сommunication, graphic design, architecture, history and publishing.

Focus on vocabulary

Task 6. Give Russian equivalents:

scientific document, work of art, at any scale, upon a flat surface, to collect up-to-date information, a diverse range of users, an infinite number, to locate places, relationships between different phenomena, to combine science, aesthetics and technique, to select traits of the object to be mapped, political boundaries.

Task 7. Match the words given in bold with their definitions in italics:

1. up-to-date (adj)               a plain and smooth, with no curved, high, or hollow parts

2. medieval (adj)                 b endless, boundless, without limits; extremely large

3. flat (adj)                           c related to the Middle Ages

4. three-dimensional (adj)  d modern, recent, containing the latest information

5. infinite (adj)                    e having or appearing to have  length, width, and height  

                                             and  therefore looking real

Task 8. Fill in the gaps (complete the sentences using the underlined words:

Technique, to discover, spatial, maps (2), to locate, surface (2), to show, information (2), accurate

1. Cartography has been defined as the art, science and technology of making … .

2. … are used … places on the … of the earth, … patterns of distribution, … relationships between different phenomena by analyzing map … .

3. Cartography combines science, aesthetics and … .

4. Cartography is a growing field due to an increasing interest in … , digital geographic … .

5. Cartographers collect … data and map the Earth's continually changing … .

Task 9. Match the words on the left with their synonyms on the right:

1. feature (n)                                                  a. exact, clear, correct, precise

2. terrain (n)                                                   b. border, frontier, verge

3. accurate (adj)                                             c. various, manifold, different

4. diverse (adj)                                               d. characteristic, trait, peculiarity

5. boundary (n)                                              e. dimensional, territorial

6. spatial (adj)                                                f. relief, landscape, countryside

Task 10. Define parts of speech and translate the words. Use a dictionary.  

Apply, applied, appliance, applicable, applicant, application; complex, complexity; diverse, diversified, diversiform, diversify, diversion, diversity; flat, flatly, flatness, flatten, flatting; eliminate, elimination; shape, shapeless, shaped, shapely.  

Task 11. Match the words given in bold with their opposites on the right:

1 diverse (adj)                            a inexact, unclear, uncertain, imprecise, incorrect

2 relevant (adj)                          b old, obsolete, outdated, outmoded

3 accurate (adj)                         c monotonous, uniform, similar, one-sided

4 enhance (v)                            d inappropriate, out of place, undue, improper

5 up-to-date (adj)                      e  reduce, decrease, downgrade, diminish, lessen

Task 12. Try to give all the derivatives to the words:

Locate, technology, globe, navigate, generalize, collect, method, design, promote.

Task 13. Which words go together according to the text? Match the words on the left with the corresponding words on the right:

1 making                                      a map makers

2 heavenly                                    b reporters

3 professional                               c map information

4 types of                                     d hurricanes

5 weather                                     e body

6 paths of                                     f plants and animals

7 analyzing                                   g maps

Task 14. Which nouns from the text are described by the following adjectives? Make up phrases and use them in your own sentences.

Accurate, fundamental, traditional, relevant, physical, political, diverse, geometrical, digital, spatial, flat, three-dimensional, infinite, up-to-date, medieval, scientific.

Task 15. Translate into English (find English equivalents in the text) and use them in sentences of your own:  научный документ, качество, все виды карт, точность, на поверхности земли, передать идею (основное содержание), возрастающий интерес, географическая информация, постоянно изменяющийся, создавать карты, спорные вопросы, принимать решение, разнообразие дисциплин, использование цвета.  

Task 16. Try to explain the meaning of the following words in English:

Boundary, complexity, diverse, terrain, eliminate, surface, trait, shape, relevant, scale.  

Task 17. Which word in this group does not belong? Why?

Cartography, geography, mathematics, accuracy, geology.

Comprehension check

Task 18. Answer the following questions:

1. What is cartography? How can it be defined?

2. What different uses of maps can you describe?

3. What are the fundamental problems of traditional cartography?

4. What are the most important quality criteria for the cartographer to keep in mind?

5. What subjects and disciplines does the cartography deal with?

6. What are the key skills of a cartographer?

Task 19. Pick out 2-3 most interesting facts from the text. Do you know any other curious facts which were not mentioned in the text?

Task 20. Are the following statements true (T) or false (F)? Give correct variants if necessary.

1. Maps are used to locate places on the surface of the earth, to show patterns of distribution, to discover relationships between different phenomena.

2. Geodata should not be geometrically and semantically accurate, because it is not important for the cartographer.

3. The concern of map editing is to set the map's agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped.

4. Geometrical accuracy of a map is achieved, if the position and shape of the provided object complies with reality.

5. The geographic reality of our world never changes, that is why maps do not change and always stay the same.

Task 21. Guess the geographical riddles:

1. What is it that looks like a ball,  but stands still and does not fall?

    People like to turn it round; rivers, mountains, lakes are found,

    Countries, states and their towns  can be seen all around.

2. Do you know anything that has four eyes?

Read and enjoy the cartographic jokes:

1. Q: Why don't cartography librarians wear high heels?
  A: They prefer map flats.

2. Q: What is the difference between a tub full of freezing water and a depth contour?
  A: One is an icy bath and the other is an isobath.

3. Q. Why weren’t there any parallels on the map?
  A. Because the cartographer didn’t have any latitude in his map design.

Task 22. Divide the text into logical parts; pick out the key words to make up an outline of the text. Retell the text using your plan.

Task 23. Give a brief summary of the information or write a review of the text.

Task 24. Speak individually (prepare a comprehensive talk) or arrange a discussion on the following items:

1. Different uses of maps in modern life.

2. The main problems of traditional cartography.

3. Disciplines and subjects related to cartography.

4. Key skills for the future cartographer.

Task 25. Work in groups. Comment on the following sayings:

1. “Science is organized knowledge”. (Herbert Spencer).

2. “Cartography, although spreading into many subjects and maps being used in so many aspects of our lives, is still a very 'friendly' field. It is a subject that seems to transcend geographical, social and political boundaries. I have met many people, with such a diversity of experiences, that I firmly believe that no other path would have offered me such an enjoyable and rewarding career.” (Susie Jones, lecturer in cartography, Royal School of Military survey, Berkshire).
Task 26. Use the text of this unit as the centerpiece of your own article to a specialized magazine, which you should write to raise the interest of the general public to cartographic sciences and the problems they deal with.

Task 27. Cartographic quiz. Do you know? 

1. This is the Latin phrase meaning "empty land" that is used to refer to blank space.

2. What was the start of modern epidemiology?

3. When was the world first considered round?

Unit 2. History of cartography

Before you read

Task 1. Read and comment on the following:

1. “Necessity is the mother of invention.” (Swift).

2. "It is a very human story of heroics and everyday routine, of personal and national rivalries, of influential mistakes and brilliant insights, of technological innovation and a passion to explore and understand Earth and the universe." John Noble Wilford (from “The Mapmakers”).  

Task 2. Guess the meaning of the following words:

Circular, scholar, cylindrical, projection, navigation, manuscript, print, magnetic, military, database, dynamic, interactive, geology, manipulation, observation.

Vocabulary

Task 3. Study the following words:

ancient (adj) - древний, старинный            extant (adj) - сохранившийся

chart (n) - карта, таблица, схема                generation (n) - поколение

create (v) -  создавать, творить                  inherit (v) -  наследовать, унаследовать

demand (n) - спрос, востребованность      invention (n) - изобретение

depict (v) - изображать,  описывать           landmass (n) - континент, материк

distribution (n) – распространение            merchant (n) - купец

duplicate (v) - копировать                           opportunity (n) -  возможность, случай  

engraved (adj) – (вы)гравированный          painstakingly (adv) - тщательно        

equidistant (adj) - равноудаленный              parchment (n) – пергамент, рукопись                            

existence (n) - существование                               quality (n) -  качество, сорт

explorer (n) - исследователь, путешественник            

satellite (adj) – спутниковый; (n) спутник            sheer (adj) - явный, абсолютный

Task 4.  Transcribe and pronounce the following words correctly. Practice their reading:

Millennium, surrounded, island, significance, existent, geographer, medieval, exploration, particular, theoretical, frequently, manipulate, sextant.

The History of Cartography

Task 5. Read the text and point out the information that was new to you. Be ready to do the tasks that follow the text.

     Maps have been in use for many centuries. No one knows for sure, when the first map was created. The earliest map may date back to about 4500 years ago. The earliest known map is a wall painting, which may depict the ancient Anatolian city and has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE. Other known maps of the ancient world include the "House of the Admiral" wall painting from 1600 BCE and an engraved map of the holy Babylonian city (the14th – 12th centuries BCE). The oldest surviving world maps are the Babylonian world maps from the 9th century BCE. One shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria and several cities, in turn surrounded by a river.

     The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps, beginning at latest with the 6th century BC. In the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy produced his treatise on cartography, “Geographia”. This contained Ptolemy's world map - the world then known to Western society. As early as the 8th century, Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic.

     In ancient China, geographical literature spans back to the 5th century BC. The oldest extant Chinese maps are of the 4th century BC. In the book, published in 1092 by the Chinese scientist Su Song, there was a star map. The greatest significance of these maps is that they represent the oldest existent star maps in printed form.

     Early forms of cartography of India included the locations of the Pole star and other constellations. These charts may have been in use by the beginning of the Common Era for purposes of navigation.

     “Mappa mundi” are the Medieval European maps of the world. Many of such maps are known to have survived from the Middle Ages. Of these, some 900 are illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents.

     The Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi produced his medieval atlas in 1154. He incorporated the knowledge of Africa, the Indian Ocean and the Far East, gathered by Arab merchants and explorers, with the information inherited from the classical geographers, to create the most accurate map of the world up until his time. It remained the most accurate world map for the next three centuries.

     In 1187, the magnetic compass revolutionized navigation and led to the development of sea charts. These early navigational maps were drawn by hand on sheepskins. The travels of Marco Polo in the 1270s and 1280s aroused interest in world maps. As late as the 1400's, all maps were still painstakingly reproduced by hand, so there were very few maps in existence. The invention of the printing press in 1450 opened the way to accurately and quickly duplicate maps. Beginning in the latter part of the Renaissance, maps began to be printed in Europe. The development of printing meant that maps could be easily reproduced while being faithful to the original. It also meant that more people had the opportunity to use maps.

     Improvements in ship design and navigation, along with the rising interest in exploration, led to the development of a clearer picture of the world. As the empty parts of maps were filled in, maps gained wider distribution and use. Military interest in particular fuelled the need for more accurate mapping. In fact, military purposes have been the driving force in the development of modern mapping technology based on satellite imagery.

     In the Age of Exploration, from the 15th to the 17th century, European cartographers both copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their own, based on explorers' observations and new surveying techniques. The invention of the magnetic compass, telescope and sextant enabled increasing accuracy. Portuguese cartographer Diego Ribero was the author of the first known planisphere with a graduated Equator (1527).

     Due to the sheer physical difficulties inherent in cartography, map-makers frequently lifted material from earlier works, without giving credit to the original cartographer. By the 18th century, map-makers started to give credit to the original engraver by printing the phrase "After [the original cartographer]" on the work.

     In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment; therefore, varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the compass and much later, magnetic storage devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally.

     Advances in mechanical devices such as the printing press allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Optical technology, such as the telescope, sextant and other devices that use telescopes, allowed for accurate surveying of land and the ability of mapmakers and navigators to find their latitude by measuring angles to the North Star at night or the sun at noon.

     Advances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and photochemical processes, have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving, which further shortened the time it takes to make and reproduce maps.

     Advances in electronic technology in the 20th century ushered in another revolution in cartography. Ready availability of computers and peripherals, such as monitors, printers, scanners, along with computer programs for visualization, image processing, spatial analysis, and database management, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. The ability to superimpose spatially located variables onto existing maps created new uses for maps and new industries to explore and exploit these potentials.

     These days most commercial-quality maps are made using specialized software. Spatial information can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted on demand. These tools lead to increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally.  Mapping can be done with GPS and laser rangefinder directly in the field (by Field-map technology). Real-time map construction improves productivity and quality of mapping.

Common statements about maps

     "Hasn't the world already been mapped?"

     The simple answer to this is no. Although much of the world is mapped to a certain degree, many areas are not represented at useable scales or the mapping may be significantly out of date. Contrary to popular belief many regions are still not represented by maps.

     "So do you just reproduce old maps?"

     In many cases there is little point in re-surveying an area to be mapped, if the existing mapping is up-to-date, at the scale you require, contains all of the information, and is affordable. In such cases it would not be cost effective to initiate a new survey. In other instances it is necessary to undertake some new survey of an area in order to produce a new map. There may be changes to the road system, or new housing developments. The amount of new information depends on the area to be mapped and the form of mapping to be produced, for example tourist town plans or maps showing the use of the land in a region.  You are still however not simply reproducing old maps. You would take the required information from a variety of sources in order to 'compile' your new map with reference, amongst others, to the client or market that you are generating the map for.

     "Maps are so boring"!

     Anything that takes this amazing, varied and vast world around us and transforms it into a usable format, that enables us not only to travel and explore, but to study and hopefully understand our environment, cannot be boring!  Maps are used in every avenue of our lives, from planning a new ski run, walking in the countryside, going on holiday and playing computer games, to answering emergency call-outs, building an extension, studying geology, identifying political trends, social development and the demise of the Siberian tiger. In reality maps are used in virtually every subject or job in some form or another, and in recent years this has increased dramatically with the development of geographical information systems, which enable the manipulation and analysis of data in reference to a spatial, geographical framework.

Focus on vocabulary

Task 6. Give Russian equivalents:

a wall painting, the ancient world, treatise on cartography, method of charting, in printed form, for purposes of navigation, the Middle Ages, medieval atlas, to create the most accurate map, magnetic compass, to be drawn by hand, to be easily reproduced, the opportunity to use maps, the rising interest in exploration.

Task 7. Match the words given in bold with their definitions in italics:

1. parchment (n)

2. engraved (adj) 

3. landmass (n)

4. explorer (n)

5. satellite (n)

a. to be cut or carved on the surface of a hard object (of metal, stone, etc.)

b. someone who travels to places, where no one has ever been, in order to find out what is there

c. the thin, dried skin of some animals that was used in the past for writing on

d. a device sent up into space to travel round the Earth, used for collecting information or communicating by radio, television, etc.

e. a large area of land that is in one piece and not broken up by seas.

Task 8. Fill in the gaps (complete the sentences using the underlined words):  

Devices, compass, accurate (2), centuries, technology (2), charts, demands

1. Maps have been in use for many ... .

2. The magnetic ... revolutionized navigation and led to the development of sea ... .

3. Military interest fuelled the need for more ... mapping; military purposes have been the driving force in the development of modern mapping ... .

4. In cartography, ... has continually changed in order to meet the ... of new generations of mapmakers and map users.

5. Advances in mechanical ... such as the printing press allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to make ... reproductions.

Task 9. Match the words on the left with their synonyms in italics:

1 painstakingly                                             a. old, antique, longstanding

2 depict (v)                                                  b scheme, table, map, diagram

3 opportunity (n)                                         c display, describe, portray, draw

4 ancient (adj)                                             d tradesman, seller

5 merchant (n)                                            e possibility, chance

6 chart (n)                                                  f carefully, laboriously, diligently

Task 10. Define parts of speech and translate the words:

Create, creation, creative, creator, creature; distribute, distributable, distributing, distribution, distributive, distributor; exist, existence, existent; explore, exploration.

Task 11. Match the words on the left with their opposites on the right:

1 painstakingly                 a new, modern, contemporary

2 ancient (adj)                   b disappeared, missing, extinct

3 sheer (adj)                      c casually, negligently, carelessly,  roughly

4 extant                            d practical, pragmatic

5 theoretical (adj)            e implicit, tacit, hidden, concealed, incomplete

Task 12. Try to give all the derivatives to the words:

Generation (n), print (v), inherit, scholar, invent, military, observe, manipulation.  

Task 13. Which words go together according to the text? Match the words on the left with the corresponding words on the right:

1 to depict                                              a literature

2 wall                                                     b by hand

3 surrounded                                          c world map

4 geographical                                        d painting

5 the most accurate                                e on sheepskins

6 to draw                                               f by a river

7 to be reproduced                                 g the ancient city

Task 14. Which nouns from the text are described by the following adjectives? Make up phrases and use them in your own sentences.

Ancient, equidistant, cylindrical, sheer, circular, medieval, accurate, magnetic, empty.

Task 15. Translate into English (find English equivalents in the text) and use them in sentences of your own:

Центр мира; пробудить (вызвать) интерес; точно соответствующий оригиналу; пустые части карт; изобретение магнитного компаса и телескопа; доверять кому-либо; быть ограниченным в количестве (распространении); найти широту; измерение углов; древнегреческие карты; успехи (прогресс) в технологии.  

Task 16. Which word in this group does not belong? Why?

Compass, telescope, island, sextant, printing press.

Comprehension check

Task 17. Correspond the facts from the text with the following dates and names. What do they refer to?

4500 years ago; Ptolemy; 1092; 1154; 1187; Marco Polo; 1450; Diego Ribero, 1527.

Task 18. Answer the following questions:

1. What are the earliest known maps?

2. What are the oldest surviving world maps?

3. What was the result of the invention of the printing press in 1450? What did the development of printing mean?

4. How did the improvements in ship design and navigation help the cartography?  

5. What can you say about the technological changes in cartography?

Task 19. Are the statements true or false? Give correct variants if necessary.

1 Maps have been in use for many centuries.

2 The earliest map may date back to about 1000 years ago.    

3 Early forms of cartography of India included the locations of the Pole star and the constellations.

4 The magnetic compass revolutionized navigation and led to the development of sea charts.

5 Modern maps are always manually constructed with brushes and parchment.

Task 20. Make up 5-7 questions to the text and let your group mates answer them.  Correct their mistakes if any.

Task 21. Guess the geographical riddles:

1. Look at the lines on my wrinkled old face; the land where you live you can easily trace,  and see where each nation has got its own place.

2. Why is the letter “t” like an island?

Read and enjoy the cartographic jokes:

1. Q: What is the difference between a black tie dinner for prisoners and a projection  showing true shape?
   A: One is a con formal and the other is conformal.

2. Q. How do maps get around London?
   A. They take the map tube.

3. Q. What do you call a quadrangle with green water, blue forests, and all the  names spelled backwards?
   A. A topo-illogical map.

Task 22. Divide the text into logical parts; pick out the key words to make up an outline of the text. Retell the text using your plan.

Task 23. Prepare a comprehensive talk on the following topics:

1. The main stages in the history of cartography.

2. The earliest known maps.  

3. The most famous cartographers of the past.

4. Technological changes in cartography.

5. The development of Russian cartography.

Task 24. Work in groups. Comment on the following sayings:

1. “Let us look at the map, for maps, like faces, are the signatures of history.” (Will Durant).

2. 'Cartographic documents have been used as vehicles of communication by different cultures for many millennia; the earliest map to survive, drawn about 2300 BC on a clay tablet, was found in the Middle East. Centuries before Christ, Greek philosophers and mathematicians advanced the concept that Earth was a sphere, and Eratosthenes made a reasonable calculation of Earth's circumference.' (Heidenreich).

Task 25. Work with one or two of your group-mates to create a poster for mass media and public transport system, to support the initiative for making next year the “World Year of Cartography and maps”.

Task 26. Cartographic quiz. Do you know?

1. Why were Europeans concerned about map making in the 15th and 16th centuries?

2. What is the 1450 invention that contributed to the growth of cartography?

3. How many colours can the human eye see approximately?

Unit 3. What is a map? Basic information about maps.

Before you read

Task 1. Answer the following questions:

1. When did you use a map last? What did you use it for?

2. Did you like working with maps at geography and history lessons when you were at school? What geographical objects suggested by your teacher did you look up on the maps?  

Read and comment: “Geographical, strategic and historical maps are an essential component of any history book or article. They enable the reader to visualize a military battle in a series of phases, or to familiarize themselves with the general geographical location where the story takes place. Professionally executed maps add to the flavour of your book and enhance the overall appeal of the subject at hand. Don't short-change yourself by settling for anything less than the best, when it's time to look for maps.” (Nick Millea, Map libraian, Bodleian Library, Oxford).

 Task 2. Guess the meaning of the following words:

 Population, natural, resource, elevation, legend, infrastructure, potential, representation, correlation, physician, coordinate, line, select, accuracy, sketch.   

Vocabulary

Task 3. Study the following words:

aid (n) - помощь, поддержка                       particular (adj) - конкретный, особый

attribute (n) – признак, свойство                point (n) - точка, пункт, место

common (adj) - общий, обычный                projection (n) - проекция

depth (n) - глубина, глубь                            purpose (n) - цель, замысел  

display (v) - отображать, показывать          reference (n) - ссылка, справка

elevation (n) - высота, возвышенность       represent (v) - представлять,  

enormous (adj) - огромный, громадный     обозначать

fulfil (v) - выполнять, исполнять                require (v) – требовать (ся), нуждаться    

inch (n) – дюйм                                             route (n) - маршрут, трасса, путь                  

message (n) – сообщение, идея                   similar (adj) - подобный, аналогичный        

obtain (v) - получить, приобретать             size (n) - размер, величина  

obvious (adj) - очевидный, явный               suitable (adj) - пригодный, уместный                                          

waterway (n) - водный путь, водоток         tool (n) - инструмент, орудие

Task 4.  Transcribe and pronounce the following words correctly. Practice their reading:

Relationships, coordinate, texture, feature, essential, three-dimensional, spherical, obvious, aeronautical, enormous, digital, particular, directory.

What is a Map? All about maps

Task 5. Read the text and point out the information that was new to you. Be ready to do the tasks that follow the text.

     Maps are common objects. We see them every day, we use them when we travel, and we refer to them often.  A map is a representation, usually on a flat surface, of a whole or part of an area. The job of a map is to describe spatial relationships of specific features that the map aims to represent. There are many different types of maps that attempt to represent certain things. Maps can display political boundaries, population, physical features, natural resources, climates, and economic activities.  

     A map is a kind of visual aid - a picture which conveys a message. Have you ever drawn a simple sketch map, in order to direct someone to some place? You are representing the locality in picture form to make it easier for the person to find. Verbal directions would be harder to follow and remember. Professionally produced maps exist for basically the same purpose, as your own little sketch map. Some are simple, some are complex, but they all convey some kind of information in pictorial form. Some maps are highly detailed, showing a wealth of information, including ground shape and elevation, as well as details such as fences and buildings. Other maps are quite simple and exist for one purpose only. A road map might show only main routes and names of towns. A weather map just shows the weather pattern over a given area. The amount and type of information depicted depends on the nature and purpose of the map.

     A map is a set of points, lines, and areas, all defined both by position with reference to a coordinate system and by their non-spatial attributes. Maps are the world reduced to points, lines, and areas, using a variety of visual resources: size, shape, value, colour and orientation. A thin line may mean something different from a thick one, and similarly, red lines from blue ones. A map is a “bird's-eye” view, which means it's a picture of what a place looks like from the air. Maps have legends — collections of symbols, that represent different features of the map. They can be letters or numbers. The legend also includes a scale, which says how much space on the map (usually an inch) equals a mile in real life. It also includes a compass rose, so people know which way north, south, east, and west are.

     A photograph shows all objects in its view; a map is an abstraction of reality. The cartographer selects only the information, that is essential to fulfil the purpose of the map, and that is suitable for its scale. Globes are some of the most accurate maps that exist. This is because the earth is a three-dimensional object that is close to spherical. A globe is an accurate representation of the spherical shape of the world. Maps lose their accuracy, because they are actually projections of a part of or the entire Earth.

     The uses of some of the maps are obvious. Experts in many fields use maps as tools. Aircraft pilots use aeronautical charts for navigation. Navigation of oceans and other waterways requires the use of nautical maps and hydrographic charts. Water depths, shipping routes and other relevant information may be obtained from these. A list of map users would be enormous. Of course, we all use them to some extent. Remember the map that we discussed earlier? The one you drew to direct someone to a particular place. And if we are motorists, we probably carry a street directory in the glove box of the car. When we are tourists, we consult maps of the places we visit, and we use route maps for buses and trains. Maps affect our lives more than we probably realise.

     No matter what the purpose, making a map requires similar steps. Here is a summary of some of the major steps involved in producing a map.

     Geospatial professionals can collect and evaluate mappable information first-hand through field work, or second-hand from existing maps, aerial photographs, statistical reports, or computerized data files.

     Almost all maps now start with a base map, that isn’t created specifically for the map that’s being made. In most cases, someone (often the local, state, or federal government) has already compiled detailed digital information, like streets, rivers and boundaries, and that information is available for map makers using GIS. No map or analysis is any good without accurate data, it is important that databases are developed according to rigorous standards and carefully edited and maintained.

     So let’s say we have all this information to make a map. There are a lot of choices that a cartographer has to make, when it comes to designing the map: how should the round earth be transformed to the flat page or screen (map projection), what size and extent should the map cover (scale), what colours and shapes should be on the map (symbols), how will it be printed or displayed? Fortunately, with computers, cartographers can now try out a bunch of map design choices - not so long ago, each change was really time-consuming and expensive. There are several types of map projections, as well as several methods used to achieve these projections. Each projection is most accurate at its centre point and becomes more distorted the further away from the centre that it gets. The projections are generally named after either the person who first used it, the method used to produce it, or a combination of the two.

     Nowadays there are many digital ways to display the final map. The design of digital maps is different from those made on paper, and there are a lot of different digital formats. Imagine how different maps have to look, if they’re designed for in-car GPS navigation system screens, or tiny cell phone displays, or online mapping applications, or video games. A lot of modern mapping will be digital, and it’s a good idea to be familiar and comfortable with computers and programming as a future geospatial professional.  

     “What is a map?” seems like an easy question. Maps are generally accepted as precise and accurate, which is true, but only to a point. A map of the entire world, without distortion of any kind, has yet to be produced. Maps are valuable, timeless objects that we would be lost without.

     Maps are perhaps as fundamental to society as language and the written word. They are the preeminent means of recording and communicating information about the location and spatial characteristics of the natural world, society and culture. Maps, though of special concern to geographers, are used throughout the sciences and humanities and in every aspect of day-to-day life. Millions of maps are produced and used annually throughout the world by scientists, scholars, and businesses to meet environmental, economic, political, and social needs. Many cartographers have reflected on the important role played by maps in society.  Maps gain their value in three ways:

     1. As a way of recording and storing information.

     Governments and society must store large quantities of information about the environment and the location of natural resources, to record property, society's infrastructure or utilities for water, power, telephone, transportation, and population.

     2. As a means of analyzing locational distributions and spatial patterns. 

     Maps let us recognize spatial relationships, and make it possible for us to visualize and hence conceptualize patterns and processes that operate through space.

     3. As a method of presenting information and communicating findings.

     Maps allow us to convey information and findings that are difficult to express verbally. Maps can also be used to convince and persuade. To realize this potential, it is useful to learn some basic principles of cartographic communication and map design in the production of more effective maps. Maps could be used more widely in the natural and social sciences, for analysis and communication, particularly now, when computers can be used as an aid to production.

     The power of straightforward mapping should not be overlooked. The primary effect of mapping is informational. Mapping allows the viewer to get a spatial sense. Mapping can provide clues to correlation with other events or features.

     An early example of the power of mapping comes from the famous Dr. Snow investigation. In September, 1854 during an outbreak of cholera in a section of the city of London, Dr. John Snow, a local physician, decided to test his hypotheses that the outbreak was a result of contaminated water supplies, a view contrary to the medical beliefs of the time. He accomplished this by drawing a map, showing where the victims lived and where the local water pumps were located. He plotted the location of the homes of 578 people that had died of the disease, as well as the position of 13 neighboring water pumps or wells, theorizing that cholera was a water born disease. Examining his map, he determined that most victims lived in the vicinity of the Broad Street pump. The map clearly showed a clustering of cholera cases around one of the pumps, and when that pump was shut down, the outbreak stopped. Using the simple means of pen and paper, Dr. Snow was able to prove a cause and effect relationship between contaminated water and instances of disease, by using a map to visualize the instances of disease and the location of water pumps. This early example paved the way for a new, powerful tool in analyzing and addressing public health care on a spatial level to help understand phenomenon.

     Mapping is useful as a preliminary step towards higher end analysis. As one example, the City of Santa Clarita mapped youth crime graffiti incidents, in order to help Community services understand which variables most affect the occurrence of this crime. Incident locations were mapped along with cultural features such as parks and schools. A visual analysis indicated that graffiti predominately seems to be occurring near parks. Higher end statistical analysis was then utilized to determine statistical correlation between park locations and rates of graffiti. The end result was a more effective tool to resource patrols and outreach programs. So we must never forget the role that basic mapping plays.

     A map, according to the International Cartographic Association, is “a symbolised representation of geographical reality, representing selected features or characteristics, resulting from the creative effort of its author’s execution of choices, and is designed for use when spatial relationships are of primary relevance”. From this definition five major characteristics of maps can be extracted:

     • Geographical reality: a map shows an image of our world or any geographical space we choose, but it is always bound to represent the reality as it is or was.

     • Symbolized representation: maps use signs and symbols to represent the geographical reality, they do never show the reality in every detail.

     • Selected features or characteristics: maps are always limited to show certain features of the reality, according to the purpose of the map. They abstract and illustrate complex correlations to the reader, always to serve a specific purpose.

     • Author’s execution of choices: the author of the map chooses which features are shown in the map to the user, and in which way they are shown. Maps omit information that does not add to the purpose of the map, and overscale information that is especially important to the reader.

     • Spatial relationships are of primary relevance: the usage of a map to describe a part of reality is only reasonable, if the spatial arrangement of its elements is of any significance.

Focus on vocabulary

Task 6. Give Russian equivalents:

To describe spatial relationships, specific features, natural resources, a kind of visual aid, to convey a message, in pictorial form, highly detailed, a wealth of information, a thin line, a “bird's-eye” view, a compass rose, a three-dimensional object, spherical shape, to lose accuracy, shipping routes, to be obtained.

Task 7. Match the words given in bold with their definitions in italics:

1. size (n)

2. enormous (adj)

3. waterway (n)

4. inch (n)

5. tool (n)

a huge, extremely large, giant, grandiose

b a unit used for measuring length, approximately equal to 2.54 centimetres

c dimensions, magnitude; how large or small something or someone is

d means, instrument; a piece of equipment that you use with your hands to make or repair something

e water artery; a narrow area of water, such as a river or canal, which ships or boats can sail along; watercourse.

Task 8. Fill in the gaps (complete the sentences using the underlined words):

Features, essential, projections, affect, boundaries, suitable, method, resources, design

1. Maps can display political ... , population, physical ... , natural ... , roads, and economic activities.  

2. The cartographer selects only the information, that is ... to fulfil the purpose of the map, and that is ... for its scale.

3. Maps ... our lives more than we probably realise.

4. With computers, cartographers can now try out a bunch of map ... choices.

5. The ... are generally named after either the person who first used it, the ... used to produce it, or a combination of the two.

Task 9. Match the words with their synonyms in italics:

1 display (v)                                               a. assistance, help, allowance

2 particular (adj)                                         b widespread, usual, ordinary

3 aid (n)                                                     c expose, reflect, show

4 elevation (n)                                            d increase, lifting, uplift, height

5 common (adj)                                          e extract, achieve, acquire

6 obtain (v)                                                f special, specific, certain

Task 10. Define parts of speech and translate the words (using the dictionary):

Attribute, attribution, attributive; elevate, elevated, elevation, elevating, elevator; point, pointed, pointedly, pointer, pointful, pointing, pointless; project, projection, projector; purpose, purposeful, purposeless, purposely, purposive.  

Task 11. Match the words on the left with their opposites on the right:

1 suitable (adj)                            a rare, infrequent, unusual, peculiar, unordinary

2 common (adj)                           b small, little, tiny, slight

3 obvious (adj)                            c different, various, diverse

4 enormous (adj)                        d obscure, unclear, confusing, strange

5 similar (adj)                             e inappropriate, improper, unfit, inconvenient

Task 12. Try to give all the derivatives to the following words:

Represent, natural (adj), similar (adj), require, value, resource, transform, achieve.  

Task 13. Which words go together according to the text? Match the words on the left with the corresponding words on the right:

1 common                                                    a reality

2 a flat                                                          b pattern

3 to convey                                                   c map users

4 the weather                                                d representation

5 an abstraction of                                        e information

6 an accurate                                                f objects

7 a list of                                                      g surface

Task 14. Write the antonyms for the following words:

Elevation (n), natural (adj), accuracy (n), essential, simple, relevant, expensive.

Task 15. Translate into English (find English equivalents in the text) and use them in sentences of your own:

Природные ресурсы, дорожная карта, названия городов, количество (объем) и тип информации, форма и цвет, самые точные карты, использовать для навигации, собирать и оценивать информацию, в большинстве случаев, отнимающий много времени и дорогой, точки и линии, цифровой формат, без искажения.

Comprehension check

Task 16. Answer the following questions:

1. How can a map be defined? What is its job (aim)?

2. What visual resources do the cartographers use to produce a map?

3.  How do maps represent reality?

4. In what fields do the experts use maps as tools?

5. How is a map made? What are the major steps of producing a map?

6. Where do we get the data to put on a map?  

7. Do you have to start with a blank computer screen every time when making a map?

8. What choices does a cartographer have to make when he comes to designing the map?

9. Is the design of digital maps the same as the design of maps made on paper?

10. What can you say about the value of maps? What role do the maps play in society?

11. What is the primary effect of mapping?

12. What is an early example of the power of mapping connected with Dr. John Snow?

13. What are five major characteristics of maps?

Task 17. Pick out 2-3 most interesting facts from the text. Do you know any other facts which were not mentioned in the text?

Task 18. Are these statements true or false? Give correct variants if necessary.  

1. Maps are common objects and we use them very often.

2. The amount and type of information depicted depends on the nature and purpose of the map.

3. Geospatial professionals can collect and evaluate mappable information only first-hand, through field work.

4. No map or analysis is any good without accurate data that is why the databases are developed according to rigorous standards, and carefully edited and maintained.

5. Each projection becomes more distorted and less accurate at its centre point.

Task 19. Guess the geographical riddles:

1. I am used to draw lines with, I am long and very thin;

    On my face black figures shine.  Try, you must my name define.

2. Why is the Atlantic Ocean like a small boy?

Read and enjoy the cartographic jokes:

1. Q. How do you clean a nautical chart?
   A. You give it an iso-bath (isobath).

2. Q. What map element plays in the band?
   A. The symbols (cymbals).

3. Q. What do John Wayne and a map key have in common?
   A. Both are legends.

Task 20. Give a brief summary of the information or write a review of the text.

Task 21. Speak individually (prepare a comprehensive talk) or arrange a discussion on the following items:

1. A map as a tool and a kind of visual aid.

2. Major steps involved in producing a map.

3. The value of maps; their role in modern society.

4. The famous investigation of Dr. John Snow (1854).  

Task 22. Work in groups. Comment on the following sayings:

1. “It’s no work, if you love what you’re doing”. (Steve Sears).

2. “You cannot depend on your eyes when your imagination is out of focus.” (M.Twain).

Task 23.  Translate into English: 

Для чего предназначался первый в мире пазл?

Первый в мире пазл был изобретён английским картографом Джоном Спилсбури около 1760 года. Но предназначался он не для развлечения, а для образовательных целей, так как представлял собой нарезанную на отдельные государства карту Европы. Такой метод обучения был весьма наглядным и очень понравился детям, и только спустя много лет люди придумали выпускать игровые пазлы.

Task 24. Cartographic quiz. Do you know? 

1. Who discovered that the Earth is an oblate spheroid (flattened at poles, bulging at equator)?

2. Where does 1 degree of longitude equal 1 degree of latitude?

3.  What is the Prime Meridian?

Unit 4. Types of Maps

 Before you read

Task 1. Read and comment on the following:

1. "Anything that can be spatially conceived, can be mapped - and probably has been." (From “The Nature of Maps”, by Robinson and Petchenik).

2. Schultz points out that many "maps represent a visual summa of contemporary knowledge, power, and prestige”.

Task 2. Guess the meaning of the following words:

 Thematic, provincial, schematic, urban, diagram, topographic, climatic, orienteering, continent, distance, contour, vegetation, cartogram, consult.  

Vocabulary

Task 3. Study the following words:

amount (n) - количество, объем, сумма        landscape (n) - ландшафт, местность

average (adj) – средний                                   latitude (n) – широта

border (n) - граница, рубеж, грань                 longitude (n) - долгота

computation (n) - вычисление, расчет           nautical (adj) - морской

density (n) - плотность, насыщенность          plane (n) – плоскость

desert (n) – пустыня                                         provide (v) - обеспечивать,

distortion (n) - искажение, искривление        предоставлять

elaborate (adj) - сложный, продуманный      rock (n) - скала, утес, горная порода

expose (v) - подвергать, выставлять               significant (adj) - значительный      

familiar (adj) – знакомый, привычный          soil (n) - почва, грунт, земля                                            

fold (n) - складка, сгиб, впадина                     specific (adj) - конкретный, особый            

temperate (adj) – умеренный                          stratum (n) - слой, пласт                          

Task 4.  Transcribe and pronounce the following words correctly. Practice their reading:

Topographic, physical, infrastructure, requirement, depth, temperature, dimension, average, fault, agricultural, subsurface, special-purpose, geologic.

Map Types

Task 5. Read the text and point out the information that was new to you. Be ready to do the tasks that follow the text.

     There are different types of maps: contour map, electronic map, nautical chart, road atlas, street map, and others.  Non spatial maps are diagrams such as schematic diagrams and treemaps, display logical relationships between items, and do not display spatial relationships at all. Some maps, for example the London Underground map, are topological maps: the distances are completely unimportant here; only the connectivity is significant. Maps of the world or large areas are often either 'political' or 'physical'. The most important purpose of the political map is to show territorial borders; the purpose of the physical is to show features of geography such as mountains, soil type or land use including infrastructure such as railroads and buildings.

     General-purpose maps provide many types of information on one map (bodies of water, railway lines, parks, elevations, towns and cities, political boundaries, latitude and longitude, national and provincial parks). Most atlas maps, wall maps, and road maps fall into this category. These maps give a broad understanding of location and features of an area. You can gain an understanding of the type of landscape, the location of urban places, and the location of major transportation routes all at once.

     There are several specialized maps for specific uses, and although they may use the same kinds of information, their requirements are different. Nautical and aeronautical charts provide critical information about the elevation of terrain and the depth of water bodies. These maps are designed specifically for sea and air navigation.  

     A climate or weather map shows information about the climate of an area. They can show things like the specific climatic zones of an area based on the temperature, the amount of snow an area receives or average number of cloudy days. These maps normally use colours to show different climatic areas.
     An economic or resource map shows the specific type of economic activity or natural resources present in an area, through the use of different symbols or colours, depending on what is being shown on the map. For example, an economic activity map can use colours to show different agricultural products of given areas, letters for natural resources and symbols for different industries.

     Geological maps show not only the physical surface, but characteristics of the underlying rock, fault lines, and subsurface structures. A geological map is a special-purpose map made to show geological features. Rock units or geologic strata are shown by colour or symbols, to indicate where they are exposed at the surface. Bedding planes and structural features such as folds, foliations are shown with symbols, which give these features' three-dimensional orientations. The oldest preserved geological map is the Turin papyrus, made around 1150 BCE for gold deposits in Egypt.  

     For general reference and atlas maps, you usually want to balance shape and area distortion. If your map has a specific purpose, you may need to preserve a certain spatial property—  shape, area, scale or direction —to achieve that purpose.

     Although there are many different kinds of maps, we may classify them broadly under three categories: topographic, planimetric and thematic.

     Topographic maps (Greek- Topos: a place; Graphos: I write) represent the terrain - mountains and valleys - of the earth’s surface; they show elevations with contour lines or shading. They also often include vegetation, buildings, transportation lines, boundary lines, water bodies, and place names. The Canadian Centre for Topographic information provides this definition: a topographic map is a detailed and accurate graphic representation of cultural and natural features on the ground. This type of map is characterized by large-scale detail and quantitative representation of relief, usually using contour lines in modern mapping, but historically using a variety of methods.  A topographic map shows the shape and the height of the ground (usually referred to as ‘relief’) together with all natural and man-made features relevant to the scale, at which the map is drawn. Relief is usually depicted by contours, drawn regular intervals apart. An experienced map reader can form a mental picture of the ground shape by studying contours.

     There are several other methods of showing relief.  Hill shading gives an idea of ground shape to inexperienced eyes by approximating the shadows of mountains as they would appear when viewed from above. It is usually assumed that the light is falling from the north-west corner of the map.
    Layer tints are used in atlases and show a number of different height divisions, each in a different colour. For example, all land between sea level and 250 metres might be shown in a green tint. Land from 250 to 500 metres might appear in a lighter green, 500 to 750 metres in light brown, 750 to 1,000 metres in a darker brown, and so on.  

     Topographic maps are based on topographical surveys. Topographic maps have multiple uses in the present day: any type of geographic planning or large-scale architecture; earth sciences; mining, civil engineering and recreational uses such as hiking and orienteering; military maps.

Planimetric maps

     Planimetry: the measurement of plane surfaces (Oxford Dictionary).
    Planimetry involves the determination of horizontal distances, angles and areas. Planimetric maps show the location of roads and buildings, and do not show elevations. Whereas a topographic map shows visible features, a planimetric map shows boundaries that are not necessarily marked on the ground; an example of this would be a municipal boundary or a postal division.
    Planimetric base maps show road pattern, parks, creeks and local government boundaries. Cadastral maps are critical to local governments, city planning, emergency response efforts, and real estate activities. Cadastral maps show land subdivisions and roads. Title plans and survey maps, which depict the extent and ownership of land, belong to this class of map. Some engineering plans and designs for construction work involving such things as drainage or road construction.

Thematic maps

     Thematic maps focus on specific topics. These maps deal with a particular theme as the title suggests. They often use colour to great advantage. Street guides really fall into this category. Other examples are maps showing density of population, geological maps indicating mineral resources, daily weather charts (the ones shown on television), climatic charts showing averages, maps showing resources of one kind or another - there is almost no limit to the kind of theme that may be represented in this way. While general reference maps show where something is in space, thematic maps tell a story about that place. Thematic maps portray the distribution of specific geographic features such as soils, vegetation, or statistics like tax rates or air quality.

     Thematic maps serve three primary purposes:

• First, they provide specific information about particular locations.
• Second, they provide general information about spatial patterns.
• Third, they can be used to compare patterns on two or more maps.

     Common examples are maps of demographic data such as population density.

     Pictorial maps are a category of maps that are also loosely called illustrated maps, panoramic maps, perspective maps or bird’s-eye view maps. Pictorial maps usually show an area as if viewed from above at an oblique angle. They say that maps show us the face of History. This is especially true of pictorial maps, because their vocation has always been to present a visual message. Throughout the ages, pictorial maps have been used to show the cuisine of a country, the industries of a city, the cultural attractions of a tourist town, or the history of a region.

     A reversed map, also known as an upside-down map or south-up map, is a map where north is down, east is left and west is right. Thus the Southern Hemisphere is at the top of the map instead of the bottom. These maps are just as accurate as traditionally oriented maps, because the position of North at the top of maps is arbitrary. Such maps have been made in several cultures and time periods. The convention that North is at the top (and East at the right) on most modern maps was established by the astronomer Ptolemy and was adopted by other cartographers.

     A locator map (or a locator), is typically a simple map used in cartography to show the location of a particular geographic area within its larger and presumably more familiar context. Common uses of locator maps: education (maps generated for textbooks), commerce and business (direct marketing). 

     A cartogram is a map in which some thematic mapping variable – such as travel time, population, or Gross National Product – is substituted for land area or distance. The geometry or space of the map is distorted, in order to convey the information of this alternate variable. There are two main types of cartograms: area and distance cartograms.  

     A transit map is a topological map in the form of a schematic diagram, used to illustrate the routes and stations within a public transport system — bus lines, tramways, rapid transit, commuter rail or ferry routes. The main components are colour coded lines to indicate each line or service, with named icons to indicate stations or stops.  Transit maps can be found in the transit vehicles, at the platforms or in printed timetables. Their primary function is to help users to efficiently use the public transport system, including which stations function as interchange between lines.

     A fantasy map is type of map design that is a visual representation of an imaginary or fictional geography. Depending on the completeness and complexity of the map, the depiction of geographical components can range from simple drawings of a small area to an entire fictional world as in “The Lord of the Rings” by Tolkien. J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth is a renowned example of a fantasy map.

Focus on vocabulary

Task 6. Give Russian equivalents:

city map, road atlas, schematic diagram, to show territorial borders, soil type, railway lines, elevation of terrain, the depth of water bodies, sea temperature, global warming, in three dimensions, elaborate mathematical computations, specific climatic zones, amount of snow, average number, underlying rock.  

Task 7. Match the words given in bold with their definitions in italics:

1. longitude (n)

2. desert (n)

3. latitude (n)

4. familiar (adj)

5. nautical (adj)

a. a wild area, often covered with sand or rocks, where there is very little rain and not many plants

b. habitual, intimate, easy to recognize because of being seen, met, heard  before

c. the position north or south of the equator measured from 0° to 90°

d. the distance of a place east or west of an imaginary line from the top to the bottom of the Earth, measured in degrees

e. maritime, navigational, relating to ships, sailing, or sailors.

Task 8. Fill in the gaps (complete the sentences using the underlined words):

Relief, to indicate, elevations, representation, oblique, colour, features, location

1. Rock units or geologic strata are shown by ... or symbols, ... where they are exposed at the surface.

2. A topographic map is a detailed and accurate graphic ... of cultural and natural ... on the ground.

3. ... is usually depicted by contours, drawn regular intervals apart.

4. Planimetric maps show the ... of boundaries, roads and buildings, and do not show... .

5. Pictorial maps usually show an area as if viewed from above at an ... angle.

Task 9. Match the words on the left with their synonyms:

1 density                                        a. size, sum, quantity, volume

2 landscape                                    b. limit, frame, boundary

3 amount                                        c. saturation, tightness, thickness

4 distortion                                     d. deformation, misstatement

5 border                                         e. difficult, intricate, sophisticated

6 elaborate                                     f. scenery, terrain, relief

Task 10. Define parts of speech and translate the words (use a dictionary):

Dense, densely, density; distort, distortion, distortionist; expose, exposition, expositive, expositor, expository, exposure; provide, provided, provider; rock, rocky; significance, significant, signify, signification, significative.  

Task 11. Match the words on the left with their opposites on the right:

1 urban                                   a easy, simple, mere, plain, uncomplicated

2 elaborate                              b strange, unknown

3 temperate                             c unimportant, trivial, inconsiderable, minor

4 significant                            d rural, countryside

5 familiar                                e excessive, immoderate, severe, harsh, sharp

Task 12. Try to give all the derivatives to the following words:

Compute, familiar, specific (adj), theme, province, climate, vegetation, consult (v).

Task 13. Which words go together according to the text? Match the words on the left with the corresponding words on the right:

1 electronic                                                 a relationships

2 spatial                                                      b understanding

3 to show features of                                   c boundaries

4 political                                                    d transportation routes

5 to give a broad                                         e map

6 major                                                       f specifically for navigation

7 to be designed                                          g geography

Task 14. Find English equivalents in the text and use them in sentences of your own:

Карта мира, водоемы, национальные парки, показывать различные климатические зоны, специальная (особая) цель, плотность населения, эпицентр землетрясения, горы и долины, разнообразие (множество) методов, зеленый оттенок (тон), тематическая карта, южное полушарие, политическая и физическая карта.  

Task 15. Try to explain the meaning of the following words in English:  

Border, soil (n), distortion, elaborate, fold, landscape, rock, significant, temperate. 

Task 16. Which word in this group does not belong? Why?

Transit, pictorial, thematic, three-dimensional, cadastral, planimetric, topographic.  

Comprehension check

Task 17. Answer the following questions:

1. What three categories of maps are there?  

2. What is the most important purpose of the political and the physical map?

3. What do the non spatial maps display?

4. What features can be shown on general-purpose maps?

5. What other mapping specialties (maps for specific uses) can you name? Characterize them briefly.

6. What is the oldest preserved geological map?

7. What maps preserve shape, area and scale?

8. What do the topographic maps represent?

9. What are the main methods of showing relief?

10. What can you say about the planimetric maps? Give some examples of  planimetric maps.

11. What do the thematic maps show? Name some kinds of maps from this category.

12. What three primary purposes do thematic maps serve?

Task 18. Are the statements true or false? Give correct variants if necessary:

1. A climate map shows information about the climate of an area, the amount of snow an area receives or the average number of cloudy days.  

2. An economic or resource map shows the specific type of economic activity or natural resources of an area, through the use of different symbols or colours.

3. A fantasy map is a map where south is up, north is down, east is left and west is right.  

4. A geological map is a special-purpose map made to show geological structural features and bedding planes.

5. A topographic map never shows vegetation, buildings, transportation lines, boundary lines or water bodies.

Task 19. Make up 7-10 questions to the text and let your group mates answer them. Correct their mistakes if any.

Task 20. Guess the geographical riddles:

1. What goes uphill and downhill, but always remains in the same place?

2. How far can you go into the forest?

Read and enjoy the cartographic jokes:

1. Q. What kind of map plays CD's?
   A. A stereo map.

2. Q. Why is a lifeguard like a polar stereographic projection?
   A. The lifeguard is a tan gent and the polar stereographic projection is tangent.

3. Q. Why was longitude boiling mad?
   A. Because it was 360 degrees.

Task 21. Divide the text into logical parts; pick out the key words to make up an outline of the text. Retell the text using your plan.

Task 22. Speak individually (prepare a comprehensive talk) or arrange a discussion on the following topics:

1. Main types / categories of maps, and their peculiarities.

2. Presentation of my own map.

3. Find photographs, pictures or do illustrations to accompany the text you have read.

Task 23. Work in groups. Discuss the following sayings:

1. “No one can do inspired work without genuine interest in his subject and understanding of its characteristics.” (Andreas Feininger).

2. "The uses of maps in human communication continually increase and diversify, reflecting the range of interests, knowledge, and aspirations." John Noble Wilford (from “The Mapmakers”).  

Task 24. Translate into English: “Географические карты побуждают нас дерзать. Они подобны тайному письму. Когда мы смотрим на них, кажется, что ничего невозможного нет”. (М. Дженкинс - "В Тимбукту").

Task 25. Cartographic quiz. Do you know? 

1. Name three families of projections.

2. If you have a datum and a projection, but no coordinate system, what do you have?

3. Who was Eratosthenes?

Unit 5. Orientation of maps. Scale and accuracy. Signs. Colours

 Before you read

Task 1. Read and comment:

1. “There’s never a map showing exactly what people want. Even if something’s already been mapped it can always be mapped again and portrayed in a different style and showing different thematic information.” (Jon Poulton, Cartographic editor, Oxford Cartographers, Eynsham).

2. “We made guidelines for implementing the signs for Network Rail. As well as designing the look of the signs, we wrote the guidelines on the best places to position signs and how to direct people. For example, after going up an escalator, we monitor where they are most likely to turn, and show how to place signs to influence the flow of pedestrians depending on the signs they encounter. It’s very rewarding to implement a scheme and witness it working and improving public spaces without the public even realising!” (Clare Seldon, a cartographer).

Task 2. Guess the meaning of the following words:

 Indicate, constant, pixel, portion, method, complex, calculation, figure, process, transliteration, structure, mile, reality, sphere, ellipsoid, standard.

Vocabulary

Task 3. Study the following words:

alter (v) - изменять, модифицировать           ground (n) - площадка, место

consistent (adj) – последовательный             imply (v) – подразумевать, означать        

correspond (v) - соответствовать                 influence (v) - влиять, воздействовать          

curvature (n) - кривизна, изгиб                    label (n) - обозначение, надпись                

deliver (v) - предоставлять, обеспечивать   narrow (adj) - узкий, тесный          

determine (v) – определять (ся)                   numerical (adj) - численный                                                    

exact (adj) – точный, верный                        recognize (v) - признавать                                                            

exaggerate (v) - преувеличивать, завышать                

fit (v) - соответствовать, подходить              settler (n) - поселенец, переселенец                                              

flatten (v) - выравнивать, сглаживать           straight (adj) - прямой, неизогнутый                              

fraction (n) - доля, часть, дробь                     stream (n) - поток, ручей, струя                                   

upside-down (adj) – перевернутый                width (n) - ширина, широта

Task 4.  Transcribe and pronounce the following words correctly. Practice their reading:

Cartographic, oriented, reintroduction, conventionally, respectively, wide-spread, primarily, relatively, viewpoint, obviously, equal, denominator, terminology.

Orientation of Maps. Scale. Signs. Colours

Task 5. Read the text and point out the information that was new to you. Be ready to do the tasks that follow the text.

     The orientation of a map is the relationship between the directions on the map and the corresponding compass directions in reality. The word "orient" is derived from Latin oriens, meaning East. In the Middle Ages many maps were drawn with East at the top (meaning that the direction "up" on the map corresponds to East on the compass). Today, the most common – but far from universal – cartographic convention is that North is at the top of a map. Several kinds of maps are not oriented with North at the top.

     Maps from non-Western traditions are oriented a variety of ways. Old Japanese maps show the imperial palace as the "top", but also at the centre, of the map. Labels on the map were oriented in such a way, that you cannot read them properly, unless you put the imperial palace above your head.  Medieval European T and O maps were centred on Jerusalem with East at the top. Prior to the reintroduction of Ptolemy's “Geography” to Europe around 1400, there was no single convention in the West.

     Maps of cities bordering a sea are often conventionally oriented with the sea at the top. Route and channel maps have traditionally been oriented to the road or waterway they describe.  Polar maps of the Arctic or Antarctic regions are conventionally centred on the pole. Reversed maps, also known as upside-down maps, reverse the "North is up" convention and have South at the top.

     Early maps before the wide-spread use of the compass placed east at the top, because the sun rises in the east and it was the most consistent directional maker. Many cartographers show what they want to be the focus at the top of the map, and therefore, influence the orientation of the map. Early Arab and Egyptian cartographers placed south at the top of the map. Many early settlers of North America created maps with a west-east orientation that resulted from the direction that they primarily travelled and explored. Their own viewpoint greatly altered the orientation of their maps.

Scale and measuring from maps

     When we want to draw something to represent the Earth’s surface, it is not possible to show features at their full size. Therefore, we ’scale’ things down, so that a section of the Earth can be shown on a smaller area, such as a piece of paper or computer screen, with all the features still in proportion. The scale of a map tells us the relationship between distances on the map and those on the ground. This makes the map more useful to us, as we can apply the map to the real world by visualising what the map represents, and use the map effectively by taking measurements from it to calculate ground distances.

      The map has to be scaled down, to fit on a page of a book or a large sheet of paper. The scale may mean that one inch on a map is equal to one mile on the ground. That means if you were to walk a mile in your town, you would have travelled only an inch on the map. The map scale is usually located in the legend box of a map, which explains the symbols and provides other important information about the map.

     A large scale map shows a small area with a large amount of detail. A small scale map shows a large area with a small amount of detail. A good way to remember it: when you give a friend a map to your home, that's most likely a large scale map.  Large scale maps cover relatively small regions in great detail, and small scale maps cover large regions such as nations, continents and the whole globe. The large/small terminology arose from the practice of writing scales as numerical fractions. The larger denominator (the second number) the smaller is the scale. Examples of large scale maps are the maps produced for hikers; on the other hand maps intended for motorists are small scale.

     Many maps are drawn to a scale, expressed as a ratio. The scale statement may be taken as exact, when the region mapped is small enough for the curvature of the Earth to be neglected, for example in a town planner's city map. Over larger regions we must use map projections from the curved surface of the Earth (sphere or ellipsoid) to the plane. The impossibility of flattening the sphere to the plane implies that no map projection can have constant scale: on most projections the best we can achieve is accurate scale on one or two lines (not necessarily straight) on the projection.

     Even the most accurate maps sacrifice a certain amount of accuracy in scale, to deliver a greater visual usefulness to its user. For example, the width of roads and small streams are exaggerated, when they are too narrow to be shown on the map at true scale; that is, on a printed map they would be narrower than could be perceived by the naked eye. The same applies to computer maps, where the smallest unit is the pixel. A narrow stream must be shown to have the width of a pixel, even if at the map scale it would be a small fraction of the pixel width.

     Cartograms have the scale deliberately distorted to reflect information other than land area or distance. An example of distorted scale is the famous London Underground map. The basic geographical structure is respected, but the tube lines (and the River Thames) are smoothed to clarify the relationships between stations.

     Further inaccuracies may be deliberate. For example, cartographers may simply omit military installations or remove features solely, in order to enhance the clarity of the map. Known as decluttering, the practice makes the subject matter, that the user is interested in, easier to read, usually without sacrificing overall accuracy.

     There are three main ways to represent scale, varying in simplicity and usefulness. A representative fraction (RF) gives the relationship between one unit on the map and the number of ground units that one unit on the map represents. This is a versatile method to use, as it is possible to apply the fraction to any unit — centimetres, inches, feet, miles. However, it is not always easy to interpret, as it can be hard to visualise 100 000 inches and, although this method allows for accurate calculation of distances, it can be laboured and complicated to convert it to a useful and understandable figure.

     A map will sometimes carry a word statement (or statement of equivalency), such as ‘one inch to one mile’. This is a clear and concise statement, which is easy to understand and helps the user to get an overall comprehension of distances without any calculations.  

     A graphic scale bar is a visual representation of the distances shown on a map. A line or block is divided up into equal sections, which are numbered to show what distance that length is representing.  There are different forms of scale bar, which vary from a straightforward, simple one, to more detailed bars with smaller divisions, allowing for more precise measuring.

     The various features shown on a map are represented by conventional signs or symbols. They are usually explained in the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet. Some maps contain smaller "sub-maps" in otherwise blank regions - often one at a much smaller scale showing the whole globe and where the whole map fits on that globe, and a few showing "regions of interest" at a larger scale, in order to show details that wouldn't otherwise fit.

     To communicate spatial information effectively, features such as rivers, or cities need to be labelled. Over centuries cartographers have developed the art of placing names on even the densest of maps. Text or name placement can get mathematically very complex, as the number of labels and map density increases. Therefore, text placement is time-consuming and labour-intensive, so cartographers and GIS users have developed automatic label placement to ease this process.

     Most maps use text to label places and for such things as the map title, legend and other information. Although maps are often made in one specific language, place names often differ between languages.  In some cases the correct name is not clear. Sometimes an official name change is resisted in other languages and the older name may remain in common use.

     Some well-known places have well-established names in other languages and writing systems, but sometimes difficulties arise, when transliteration or transcription between writing systems are required. In transliteration, the characters in one script are represented by characters in another. For example, the Cyrillic letter Р is usually written as R in the Latin script. Transliteration systems are based on relating written symbols to one another, while transcription is the attempt to spell in one language the phonetic sounds of another.  

     Further difficulties arise when countries, especially former colonies, do not have a strong national geographic naming standard. In such cases, cartographers may have to choose between various phonetic spellings of local names versus older imposed, sometimes resented, colonial names. Some countries have multiple official languages, resulting in multiple official placenames.  

     The quality of a design affects its reader's ability to extract information and to learn from the map. Cartographic symbology has been developed in an effort to portray the world accurately, and effectively convey information to the map reader. A legend explains the pictorial language of the map. Although every map element serves some purpose, convention only dictates inclusion of some elements, while others are considered optional. A menu of crucial map elements includes the neatline (border), compass rose or north arrow, overview map, bar scale, map projection and information about the map sources, accuracy and publication.  

     Map colouring is also very important and can greatly affect the understanding or feel of the map. Different intensities of hue portray different objectives the cartographer is attempting to get across to the audience. Today, personal computers can display up to 16 million distinct colours at a time. This fact allows for a multitude of colour options for even the most demanding maps. Moreover, computers can easily hatch patterns in colours to give even more options. This is very beneficial.

     Colour use is often consistent across different types of maps by different cartographers or publishers. Many colours used on maps have a relationship to the object or feature on the ground. Political maps, which show more human created features (especially boundaries), usually use more map colours than physical maps, which represent the landscape often without regard for human modification. Political maps will often use four or more colours to represent different countries or internal divisions of countries. Political maps will also differ the type of dashes and/or dots used in the line to represent the type of boundary - international, state, or county or other political subdivision.

     Physical maps commonly use colour most dramatically to show changes in elevation. A palette of greens is often used to display common elevations. Dark green usually represents low-lying land with lighter shades of green used for higher elevations. In the higher elevations, physical maps will often use a palette of light brown to dark brown to show higher elevations. Such maps will commonly use reds or white or purples to represent the highest elevations on the map.  Darker blues are used for the deepest water and lighter blues used for more shallow water.  

Focus on vocabulary

Task 6. Give Russian equivalents: to be derived from, with East at the top, cartographic convention, at full size, to determine distances, to be scaled down, to cover small regions, in great detail, to be neglected, the width of roads, to be perceived by the naked eye, the smallest unit, a narrow stream, to omit military installations, to remove features.

Task 7. Match the words given in bold with their definitions in italics:

1. narrow (adj)

2. curvature (n)

3. upside-down (adj)

4. fraction (n)

5. settler (n)

a. the state of being curved or bent

b. share; a number that results from dividing one whole number by another, or a small part of something

c. tight; having a small distance from one side to the other, especially in comparison with the length

d. colonist; a person who arrives, especially from another country, in a new place in order to live there and use the land

e. having the part, that is usually at the top, turned to be at the bottom.

Task 8. Fill in the gaps (complete the sentences using the underlined words):

Features, common, a scale, to represent, cover (2), top, to deliver, accurate (2), regions (2)

1. The most ... cartographic convention is that North is at the ... of a map.

2. When we want to draw something ... the Earth’s surface, it is not possible to show ... at their full size.

3. ... maps have ..., which helps to determine distances on the map.

4. Large scale maps ... relatively small ... in great detail, and small scale maps ... large ... such as nations, continents and the whole globe.

5. Even the most ... maps sacrifice a certain amount of accuracy in scale, ... a greater visual usefulness to its user.

Task 9. Match the words on the left with their synonyms:

1 numerical                           a. redo, remodel, vary, change, modify

2 deliver                                b uniform, agreed, permanent

3 alter                                   c convey, give, provide, ensure, supply, bring

4 fit                                      d accurate, precise, clear

5 exact                                 e digital, quantitative, computational

6 consistent                          f adapt, place, accommodate, correspond, suit

Task 10. Define parts of speech and translate the words:

Alter, alterable, alterant, alteration, alterative, alternative; exact, exacting, exactly, exactness; fit, fitness, fitting; numerable, numeral, numerate, numeration, numerator, numerical, numerically, numerous; recognize, recognition.

Task 11. Match the words on the left with their opposites on the right.

1 straight                                    a differ, vary, deviate, mismatch

2 correspond                               b inaccurate, imprecise, incorrect

3 narrow                                     c crooked, curved

4 constant                                   d broad, wide

5 exact                                        e temporary, changing, varying

Task 12. Try to give all the derivatives to the following words:

Correspond, deliver, exaggerate, fraction, ground, influence, label, settle, straight.

Task 13. Which words go together according to the text? Match the words on the left with the corresponding words on the right:  

1 the Middle                                                     a traditions

2 at the top of                                                   b distances

3 non-Western                                                  c an area

4 the relationship between                                 d the map

5 the imperial                                                   e measurements

6 taking                                                            f palace

7 a scale model of                                             g Ages

Task 14. Which nouns from the text are described by the following adjectives? Make up phrases with them.

Constant, numerical, exact, narrow, straight, upside-down, universal, equal, imperial.  

Task 15. Find English equivalents in the text and use them in sentences of your own:  

Старинные японские карты, ширина, солнце восходит на востоке, прямой, египетские картографы, лист бумаги или экран компьютера, один дюйм равен одной миле, предоставлять важную информацию, с большим количеством деталей, искаженный масштаб, специальные (преднамеренные) неточности.

Comprehension check

Task 16. Correspond the facts from the text with the dates, names and numbers. What do they refer to: Ptolemy, 1400; 100 000 inches; 16 million colours.

Task 17. Answer the questions:

1. What is the orientation of a map?  

2. What kinds of maps were not oriented with North at the top?

3. What does the scale of a map tell us?

4.  Where is the map scale usually located?

5. What is the difference between a large and a small scale map?

6. What maps have the scale deliberately distorted?

7. How do we show scale?  What are the main ways to represent scale?

8. What is a graphic scale bar? 

9. What is the difference between transliteration and transcription?

10. What does a menu of map elements include?

11. What can you say about the role of colours on maps?

Task 18. Pick out 2-3 most interesting facts from the text. Do you know any other facts which were not mentioned in the text?

Task 19. Are the statements true or false? Give correct variants if necessary.

1 Polar maps of the Arctic or Antarctic regions are conventionally centred on the pole.

2 The word "orient" is derived from Latin word, meaning West, and most early maps placed west at the top.

3 Maps of cities bordering a sea are often oriented with the sea at the top.

4 Early settlers of North America created maps with a west-east orientation that resulted from the direction that they primarily travelled and explored.

5 There is only one way to represent a scale of a map.

Task 20. Guess the geographical riddles:

1. Why is the word “thousand” like the Sahara desert?  

2. How many pounds of earth can you take out of a hole, which is one foot square and one foot deep?  

Read and enjoy the cartographic jokes:

1. Q. What do you get when you cross a cowboy with a mapmaker?
   A. A cow-tographer.

2. Q. Why does west longitude need to be cheered up?
   A. Because it is always negative.

3. Q. Why didn't the map have any meridians?
   A. It was a map of a parallel universe.

Task 21. Give a brief summary of the information or write a review of the text.

Task 22. Speak individually (prepare a comprehensive talk) or arrange a discussion on the following items:

1. Different orientations of maps.

2. Map scale: measuring distances on a map.

3. Conventional signs. Map symbology.

4. Labelling. Naming conventions.

5. Map colours. The role of colours on maps.

Task 23. Work in groups. Discuss the following: ‘Throughout my career I have been involved in the production of wonderful maps, some of which have been recognised for their cartographic excellence. In my role as President of the British Cartographic Society I am keen to promote the requirement for good cartographic design in the preparation of maps. Without it maps can give a confusing or even wrong message - good cartography is essential to the accurate and effective communication of geographic information.' (Mary Spence, Cartographic сonsultant and project manager).  

Task 24. Translate into English: 

Какое государство получило свое «имя» по ошибке?
Интересный факт: при высадке на один из островов, Колумб назвал его Сан-Хуан, в честь святого Иоанна. А центральным городком острова стал Пуэрто-Рико (“богатый порт”). Затем картографы случайно перепутали названия. И поэтому Пуэрто-Рико теперь – название государства. А его столицу именуют Сан-Хуан.

Task 25. Cartographic quiz. Do you know?

1. Who created a map of Cholera deaths?

2. What is a topophillia?

3. What does the equator serve as?

Unit 6. Things to Consider when Making a Map. Map Design

Before you read

Task 1. Read and comment on the following:

1. Arthur Robinson, an American cartographer, influential in thematic cartography, stated that a map not properly designed "will be a cartographic failure."

2. “Drawing maps is a labour intensive activity, even with the use of a computer assisted drawing program. You as the author need to be aware that the acquisition of maps can't be left until the last moment before publication”. (Mike Wood, Senior lecturer, Department of Geography, Aberdeen University).

Task 2. Guess the meaning of the following words:

Effective, communication, principle, reason, process, presentation, confusing, actual, identify, aspect, context, location, review, motive, concept, harmony, aesthetically.  

Vocabulary

Task 3. Study the following words:

actual (adj) -  фактический                 decipher (v) - расшифровать, разобрать (ся)

additional (adj) - дополнительный    dilute (v) - разбавлять, ослаблять  

appeal (n) – обращение, призыв        equipment (n) - оборудование, аппаратура    

bound (n) - граница, рамки                               incorporate (v) -  объединять      

clarity (n) - ясность, четкость                           involve (v) – включать, вовлекать

clutter (v) – загромождать, засорять                legible (adj) - разборчивый, четкий                                                                                

comprehensive (adj) – комплексный                list (n) - список, перечень, реестр                                                                                                                                                          

concise (adj) - краткий, сжатый                         network (n) – сеть                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  

consideration (n) - рассмотрение                      overlap (v) - перекрывать,                                                                        

contemplate (v) – обдумывать                           накладывать                                                      

current (adj) - нынешний, текущий                  restrict (v) – ограничивать(ся)                                      

slew (n) – множество, большое количество     sparingly (adv) - экономно, редко

Task 4.  Transcribe and pronounce the following words correctly. Practice their reading:

Vehicle, guide, incorporate, comprehensive, contemplate, require, excess, readability, proliferation, concise, currency, knowledgeable, breadth, especially. 

Reading

Task 5. Read the text and point out the information that was new to you. Be ready to do the tasks that follow the text.

     What makes a good map? When done well, a map is a vehicle for effective communication. There are many cartographic principles to help in effective map making. Below are common considerations that all cartographers should incorporate as part of their map making process. This list isn’t meant to be a comprehensive list, but rather a starting point of things to contemplate.

1. Geographic bounds

     The extent of the geographic area mapped will affect cartographic choices, from the map projection used to data and symbology choices. The geographic area of the map should be restricted to the extent of the map’s subject data.

2. Background data elements

     There are two main reasons to include data on a map: to support the subject matter of the map and to provide orientation. It’s important to choose data that is relevant and current to the map. Cluttering the map with too much background data can lead to excess noise and dilute the actual message of the map.

3. Symbolization

     The choices of symbology can make or break a map. The color choices, line widths, icons, and labeling (more on labels next) all affect the readability, and  message of the map. Consider the intended audience of the map, when selecting design choices.  

4. Labels

     While it may be tempting to label all features shown on a map, doing so can block underlying features, create confusion and cluttered looking map.  It can make the map hard to read. The labels overlap and cover the roadway network, making it hard to see the actual data on the map. Labels should be used sparingly to identify important aspects of the matter.

5. Incorporating map elements

     Making sure that all map elements are properly applied is important for providing readers with the context of the map. Most maps should have a clear and concise title, a notation on the scale and, when needed for orientation, a north arrow. Jon Zeitler, Science and operations officer at the National Weather Service Forecast office, says: “The addition of a north arrow can never harm a figure, only help with clarity.”

6. Map layout

     Choice in map orientation and placement of map elements affects the visual appeal of the map.

    The best tips for map making are to have a purpose in mind for the map, to look at other maps for inspiration and ideas, and to have the equipment necessary to create a map, which may be as simple as a sheet of paper and a pencil. A compass is generally included somewhere on a map, so that the viewer can determine which direction is north, which can greatly improve navigation when using the map, particularly if the user has an actual compass with them. Landmarks are often labelled and might also be accompanied by a note with extra details.

     Tools for map making can readily be found on the Internet, ranging from actual maps to statistical data regarding areas of interest. If one is interested in creating a map of a place that doesn't exist in reality, fantasy map making software exists as well. Fantasy maps are often additions to games, or they might be created to go along with works of fiction.

     If cartography is a form of communication, the measure of a good map is how well it conveys information to its readers to enlighten, convince, or persuade. The issue of communication holds the central role in cartographic design. To ask "what is a good map?" is to ask how well it communicates with its audience.  This means that one always begins a project by considering the message to be conveyed and the audience to be addressed. This raises a series of questions at the start of a project:

What is the motive, intent, or goal of the map? 

     The question asks what the reader should gain from the map or how the reader should respond. Many maps are intended solely to convey accurate information about spatial relationships, others to sway public debate. Obviously, the motive will have a great bearing on the content of the map (the information included) and its form (the cartographic strategies employed).

Who will read the map? 

     A cartographer must be able to identify the type of reader being addressed for two principal reasons. First, it is important to have an idea about what the audience knows in the subject matter of the map. Second, it is useful to know how much background the readers have in using maps. A map intended for specialists, who have a background in cartography, might be organized far differently.

 Where will the map be used? 

     An audience is always addressed within a particular context or frame of reference, which has a bearing on map design. Context can influence both the form and content of a map.

What data is available for the composition of the map? 

     Decisions about map design are tempered greatly by source materials themselves, by what is available and how easily it can be communicated. Sometimes our source materials have limitations or are incomplete. They may present special problems of presentation, because of technical terminology or because of the quantities of detail. These limitations must be considered from the very start of a project.

 What resources are available in terms of both time and equipment? 

     Finally, one must consider the twin questions of how much time to invest in a project and what systems to use, whether manual or automated and, if automated, what type of software. It is important to realize that production time drops dramatically with practice. Computer systems have made it much easier to produce maps, but practice is required. One must be aware of the strengths and weaknesses of various automated systems and that, in practice, a variety of software systems may be used together to achieve the desired results.

Map purpose and information selection

      Arthur H. Robinson, an American cartographer, influential in thematic cartography, claimed, when considering all aspects of cartography, that "map design is perhaps the most complex."  A clear presentation, leaving no confusion, will enhance the user's experience and keep his attention. If the user is unable to identify what is being demonstrated in a reasonable fashion, the map may be regarded as useless.

     Making a meaningful map is the ultimate goal. Alan McEachren explains that a well designed map "is convincing because it implies authenticity". An interesting map will no doubt engage a reader. Showing several variables allows comparison, which adds to the meaningfulness and information richness of the map.    

     The purpose of cartographic design is to focus the attention of the user.  The rules of cartographic design are timeless and can be taught and learnt, the  concepts have to be acquired. The following principles of map design were presented to the recent British Cartographic Society Design Group meeting at Glasgow University:  

1. Concept before compilation

     Without a grasp of concept, the whole of the design process is negated. No design or content feature should be included which does not fit the concept. Design the whole before the part. What does the user want from this map? What can the user get from this map? Is that what they want?  

2. Hierarchy with harmony

     The most important thing should look the most important. Lesser things have their place and should serve to complement the important. Associated items must have associated treatment. Perfect harmony of elements is to do with the whole map being happy with itself.  

3. Simplicity from sacrifice

     Great design tends towards simplicity. It’s not what you put in, that makes a great map, but what you take out. The map design stage is complete, when you can take nothing else out. This is the designer’s skill. Content and scale determine the level of generalization (sacrifice).

4. Maximum information at minimum cost

     How much information can be gained from this map? Design makes utility functional. All designs are a compromise. The spark which makes a map special often comes, when the map is complete.

5. Engage the emotion to engage the understanding

     Design with emotion. Only by feeling what the user feels can we see what the user sees. Good designers use cartographic fictions, impressions, illusions to make a map. All of these have emotive contents. The image is the message. Good design is a result of the tension between the environment (the facts) and the designer. Design uses aesthetics, but we are not just prettying maps up. The philosophy is simple: beauty (aesthetics) focuses the attention. Focusing the attention is the purpose of map design!

     6. Considering the purpose and audience for the map

     The purpose and audience determine how data are displayed, what map elements are included, and the general layout and format of the entire map. A map designed to be a teaching tool for third graders will obviously look different, than a map designed to be included in a report for senators.

     7. Choosing a map type

     Once cartographers know what they want to show on a map, they must decide, which map type will be most effective in communicating the map’s purpose to its readers. The type of data, and geographic area represented are the factors that affect this decision.

     8. Selecting a title that represents what is shown

     Choosing a title for a map is an important part of the cartographic process. The title should tell map readers, in a few words, what is important about the map. Some map titles simply state the information portrayed, while other titles engage map readers with a broader, catchier phrase.

     9. Selecting and placing text

     Placing text on a map is a particularly difficult challenge to the cartographer. Text must be readable and easily located, but also must not interfere with the map’s data or design. Different styles, sizes, and colours can be used to establish clear association between text and map features.

     10. Designing an overall layout for easy understanding

     Cartographers have to consider the layout of all map elements, to create a final product that is informative, accurate, and aesthetically pleasing. Visual balance is always an important consideration for design.

Focus on vocabulary

Task 6. Give Russian equivalents:

a vehicle for effective communication, a comprehensive list, a starting point, to provide orientation, the color choices, the intended audience, a scale bar, to have a purpose in mind, to improve navigation, to indicate distances, to be labelled, to display the elevation of the land, statistical data, to convey information.  

Task 7. Match the words given in bold with their definitions in italics:

1 network (n)

2 current (adj)

3 equipment (n)

4 concise (adj)

5 dilute (v)

a. short and clear, expressing what needs to be said without unnecessary words; brief, laconic

b. ongoing, of the present time, modern, today, topical

c. to dissolve, to make a liquid weaker by mixing in something else; to reduce the strength of a feeling, action, etc.

d. the set of necessary tools  for a particular purpose; hardware, outfit

e. a large system consisting of many similar parts, that are connected together, to allow movement or communication along the parts, or between the parts and a control centre

Task 8. Fill in the gaps (complete the sentences using the underlined words):

Readability, legend, cluttering, represent, message, principles, labels, dilute, sparingly

1. There are many cartographic … to help guide effective map making.

2. … the map with too much background data can lead to excess noise and … the actual message of the map.

3. The color choices, line widths, icons, and labeling affect the … and the … of the map.

4. … should be used … to identify important aspects of the matter.

5. A ... on a map is a key, that allows the person viewing the map to understand, what different symbols or colours ... .

Task 9. Match the words on the left with their synonyms:

1 clarity                                       a. valid, real, factual

2 actual                                       b framework, border, limit

3 legible                                      c unite, include, integrate, connect

4 comprehensive                         d clearness, visibility, certainty, intelligibility

5 bound                                      e detailed, extensive, full, thorough, complex

6 incorporate                               f clear, understandable, readable

Task 10. Define parts of speech and translate the words:

Add, addition, additional; consider, considerable, considerate, consideration; communicant, communicate, communication, communicative; reason, reasonable, reasonably, reasoning; present, presentable, presentation, presenter.  

Task 11. Match the words on the left with their opposites on the right:

1 knowledgeable              a little, few; small amount

2 slew                               b uncertainty, confusion, ambiguity, vagueness

3 clarity                           c inefficient, unsuccessful, fruitless, vain

4 effective                       d incompetent, unaware, ignorant, unlearned

Task 12. Try to give all the derivatives to the following words:

Actual, dilute, contemplate, equip, involve (v), legible, restrict (v), sparing, design. 

Task 13. Which words go together according to the text? Match the words on the left with the corresponding words on the right

1 map making                                      a relevant data

2 geographic                                        b the map

3 to choose                                          c audience

4 incorporating                                    d bounds

5 the visual appeal of                           e map elements

6 knowledgeable                                  f to create a map

7 the equipment necessary                   g process

Task 14. Write the antonyms for the following words:

Comprehensive (adj), concise, legible, current, restrict (v), sparingly, confusing.

Task 15. Find English equivalents in the text and use them in sentences of your own:  все источники данных, дизайн/проект, техническая терминология, важно сознавать, компьютерные системы, сильные и слабые стороны, достигать желаемых результатов, конечная цель, информационная содержательность (насыщенность), время и оборудование, сфокусировать/сконцентрировать внимание.

Comprehension check

Task 16. Answer the following questions:

1. What are the main reasons to include data on a map?

2. What can you say about the choice of map symbology?

3. What are the best tips for map making?

4. What issue holds the central role in cartographic design?

5. Why must a cartographer be able to identify the type of reader being addressed?

6. What limitations must be considered from the very start of making a map?

7. What are the basic principles in cartographic design?

Task 17. Are the statements true or false? Give correct variants if necessary.

1. A map is a vehicle for effective communication.

2. The extent of the geographic area mapped will affect a whole slew of cartographic choices.

3. It is always necessary to label all the features shown on a map.

4. Making sure that all map elements are properly applied is important for providing readers with the context of the map.

5. The choice in map orientation and placement of map elements does not affect the visual appeal of the map.

Task 18. Make up 5-7 questions to the text and let your group mates answer them. Correct their mistakes if any.

Task 19. Guess the geographical riddles:

1. What makes a road broad?  2. It flows, but cannot flow out. It runs, but cannot run out. It has a bed, but never lies in it.

Read and enjoy the cartographic jokes:

1. Q. What did the mapmaker send his sweetheart on Valentine’s Day?
   A. A dozen of compass roses.

2. Q. Why did the dot go to college?
   A. Because it wanted to be a graduated symbol.  

3. Q. Why do senior military officials like small scale maps?
   A. Because they have been GENERAL-ized.

Task 20. Divide the text into logical parts; pick out the key words to make up an outline of the text. Retell the text using your plan.

Task 21. Speak on the following items:

1. What makes a good map? Secrets of map making process.

2. Main cartographic principles of effective map making.

3. Basic rules of map design: theory and practice.

Task 22. Work in groups. Discuss the following sayings:

1. “Science and art belong to the whole world, and before them vanish the barriers of nationality.” (Goethe)

2. “Science gives us knowledge of our environment. It sets the scene in which we act.” (Magnus Pyke).  

Task 23. Describe the subject of the previous text in a letter you send to a friend. In your letter present some strong and convincing ‘for’ and ‘against’ arguments concerning the problems of design of different types of maps.  

Task 24. Cartographic quiz. Do you know?

1. Which map projection is perfect?

2. How were European maps of the “dark ages” oriented?

3. What is GPS?

Unit 7. Maps today. Cartography in the modern world. GIS

Before you read

Task 1. Read and comment on the following.

1. "Cartography exhibited rapid advances during periods when mathematics was used in an integral manner, and declined during others when maps were simply drawn by travellers based on their experiences or devised by scholars to illustrate philosophical theories of world order..." Resnikoff and Wells. (From “Mathematics and Civilization”). 

2. “The science of today is the technology of tomorrow.” (Teller).  

Task 2. Guess the meaning of the following words:

Selection, abstract, standard, dynamic, location, interactive, combination, principle, calculate, produce, concept, manipulate, dominate, technique, debut, initial, expert.

Vocabulary

Task 3. Study the following words:

access (n) -  доступ                                inflexible (adj) – негибкий, несгибаемый

allow (v) - позволять, разрешать         numerous - многочисленный

appear (v) - появляться, возникать     observation (n) - наблюдение, замечание

array (n) - массив, масса, множество  offer (v) – предлагать, выдвигать

available - доступный, имеющийся     recent (adj) - последний, недавний              

capture (v) - захватить, запечатлеть    remote (adj) – удаленный, дистанционный            

clay (n) – глина                                       scholar (n) - ученый, исследователь            

digital (adj) – цифровой                         slight (adj) - легкий, слабый          

edit (v) – редактировать, изменять       store (v) - хранить, сохранять        

father (v) – быть автором                      striking (adj) - удивительный            

huge (adj) - огромный, громадный       transcend (v) - превосходить, преодолеть                              

immediate (adj) – немедленный vast (adj) - обширный, пространный vulnerability (n) - уязвимость, подверженность

Task 4.  Transcribe and pronounce the following words correctly. Practice their reading:

Association, visualize, numerous, perception, technique, circumvent, frequently, satellite, collaboration, inexperienced, required, medium.

Maps and Cartography in the Modern world

Task 5. Read the text and point out the information that was new to you. Be ready to do the tasks that follow the text.

      The techniques of cartography have been developed to represent and visualize our surroundings on paper. Paper maps have been created and used since the development of basic geographic principles. The foundation of geographic analysis was established by Ptolemy, who created numerous maps of varying scale, and fathered the concept of our modern-day atlas. Ptolemy’s work transcended time, and greatly influenced Renaissance scholars’ perception of the Earth. His cartography dominated European mapmaking between the 15th and 16th centuries.    

     In 1675, England marked the Prime meridian at Greenwich, our current longitudinal standard. In 1687, Isaac Newton suggested the slight flattening of Earth at the poles. Similar advances made world maps astonishingly accurate. Aerial photography made its debut during the mid-1800s, in which land surveying was done from the sky. Aerial photography set the stage for remote sensing and advanced cartographic technique. These basic principles laid the foundation for modern cartography and digital mapmaking.

     Maps have changed in many ways since they were first used. The earliest maps, that have withstood the test of time, were made on clay tablets, on leather, stone, and wood. The most common medium for producing maps on is, of course, paper. Today, however, maps are produced on computers, using software, such as GIS or Geographic Information Systems. The way maps are made has also changed. Originally, maps were produced using land surveying and observation. As technology advanced, map were made using aerial photography, and then eventually remote sensing, which is the process used today. The appearance of maps has evolved along with their accuracy. Maps have changed from basic expressions of locations, to works of art, extremely accurate, mathematically produced.

     A paper map is something static and inflexible. Early in the history of computing, it was recognized, that using computers for processing maps could add dynamic features to maps and allow manipulating and analysing them. Geographers were quick to understand the value of the Internet; the first web based interactive map was created in 1993. Users connected to the Internet could zoom in to parts of the map, or pan to other parts, using simple mouse clicks, without needing to install specialized software or download large amounts of data.  

      Information Technology and the Internet have shaped cartography today. The Internet is very popular as a vehicle for delivering GIS data and applications. It is an established, widely used platform and accepted standard for interacting with information of many types.  Many interactive map sites are offered today on the Internet. The combination of maps and the Internet is a significant development, not only for improving the distribution of maps, but also because it makes a more interactive form of mapping possible - a form of mapping, that engages the map user to a much greater extent, than maps on paper.

     GPS – the Global Positioning System – provides a specific location on the planet, latitude and longitude. Maps became available to everybody. The most recent and striking example of using maps on the Internet is the map or location based search facility by Google, which offers dynamic, interactive maps. Users can view maps with location boundaries, satellite pictures, enjoy a view from the sky, locate businesses in the neighbourhood and get driving directions.   Google Earth makes it easy to learn the first basics of cartography and analysis of maps. There is already massive community of people, who have at least an initial idea, how to map from pixel to coordinate space. 

     Google maps provide maps to everybody free of charge. Google Earth combines satellite imagery, maps and the Google Search service. A user can fly from space to a specific location. Searches can be performed for schools, parks, restaurants, and hotels. Houses or apartments can be found. Terrain and buildings are shown in 3D views for certain areas. Tourist information helps to explore the world. Users can type in an address or even coordinates, and zoom to this place. Google Earth is a combination of two things: immediate interaction with easy to use GIS software, and on the other hand collaboration. People, even the most inexperienced computer user, can access a rich source of information and contribute to it – they have control over the information.  

     In today’s digital age, much of the information includes a component, that tells the geographic location of the data (this is called georeferencing). GISs are automated systems used to capture, edit, store, manipulate, analyze and display all this spatial data. Almost all maps of places on the earth are created today, using these computerized systems. Becoming expert in GIS qualifies you for a huge array of jobs that use spatial information.  

     GIS is a tool with different uses: analyzing the best location for a new cell phone tower, storing and maintaining data about global climate change, finding the most energy-efficient route for your mail carrier, helping government officials figure out how to get aid to storm victims, determining the vulnerability of a wetlands area to pollution and damage from nearby factories. Data from satellites, aerial photos, and information in layers can be integrated in GIS to answer different questions. If a project has a spatial component, GIS can be involved. The digital revolution has created an unprecedented demand for professionals, who are expert in GIS and understand how to make and use maps.  

     GIS has many applications in various fields today. They include traditional geographically related fields, urban planning, environmental impact assessment reports and natural resource management, business. Whichever way it's used, GIS has had a profound influence on geography and will continue to be used in the future, as it allows people to efficiently answer questions and solve problems by looking at easily understood and shared data in the form of tables, charts, and  maps.  GIS is everywhere. Most people at this point think to themselves "I don't use it", but they do; GIS in its simplest form is "computerized mapping". Without even thinking, tens of millions of people access directions and look-up local businesses from their hand-held devices (GPS enabled cell phones) every day.

     How has GIS become such an integral part of society almost seamlessly? Google and others were not creating products with “Hey, the mass public needs GIS” in mind; no, they were meeting needs. Humans think geographically. “Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How” are the five Ws. Place is extremely important to people. When studying how human populations have acted over the past millennia, it is easy to see, how geography dictated culture. Today, place still dictates much of our lives: property values, crime rates, education standards, these can all be classified by place. It is interesting to see, when a technology has become so ingrained in a society, that people don’t consider it when they use it. It is great, that an eight-year-old has the ability to look-up their friends address and show their parents exactly where they are going,  and so many more things, that GIS allows us to do without thinking.

     In a world driven by digital communication, information is no longer shared primarily through paper and postage. Books and letters are frequently generated and transmitted through the computer, as are maps. With the rise of Geographic Information Systems and Global Positioning Systems, the use of traditional paper maps is on a certain decline. During the latter half of the 20th century, the progression of paper maps came to a slow. At the same time, advances in technology sparked a human reliance on digital data processing and communication. GPS systems are not affected by topography or weather, making them reliable tools for navigation.  Geography and earth science increasingly rely on digital spatial data, acquired from remotely sensed images, analyzed by GIS and visualized on the computer screen.  

     As a result of public reliance on digital navigation systems, traditional cartography jobs are being downsized, and in some cases eliminated. For some organizations mapmaking is now seen as an unnecessary expense. But they realize the importance of providing paper maps, and will continue to do so. In fact, studies show that paper maps are more accurate, than GPS navigation systems. In an experiment done at the University of Tokyo, participants travelled on foot, using either a paper map or GPS device. Those using the GPS paused frequently, travelled greater distances, and took longer to get to their destination. Paper map users were more successful. While digital maps are helpful in getting from "Point A" to "Point B," they lack topographic details and cultural landmarks, among other details. Paper maps show “the big picture”, whereas navigation systems only show direct routes and immediate surroundings. These shortages can lead to geographic illiteracy and dissipate our sense of direction.

     Electronic navigation systems are advantageous, especially when driving. However, these advantages are limited, and the best navigational tool depends on the situation. Paper maps are simple and informative, yet advanced navigational tools are useful as well. Henry Poirot, president of the International Map Trade Association, says there is a niche for both digital and paper maps. He says, “The more people use GPS, the more they realize the importance of the paper product”.

     Just as e-mail and e-books are convenient and reliable, we have not seen the death of libraries, bookstores, and the postal service. In reality, this is highly unlikely. These ventures are losing profit to alternatives, but they simply cannot be replaced. GIS and GPS have made data acquisition and road navigation more convenient, but they do not equate unfolding a map and learning from it. In fact, they would not exist without the contributions of historic scholars. Paper maps and traditional cartography have been rivaled by technology, but they will never be matched.

Focus on vocabulary

Task 6. Give Russian equivalents:

basic geographic principles, the slight flattening of Earth, astonishingly accurate, to be done from the sky, digital mapmaking, clay tablets, land surveying, remote sensing, to circumvent inflexibility, to add dynamic features, to zoom in to parts of the map, to install specialized software, widely used platform, to be offered.

Task 7. Match the words given in bold with their definitions in italics:

1. vast (adj)

2. array (n)

3. recent (adj)

4. clay (n)

5. slight (adj)

a grid; a large group of things or people, especially one that is attractive or causes admiration or has been positioned in a particular way

b thick, heavy soil that is soft when wet, and hard when dry or baked, used for making bricks and containers

c last; happening or starting from a short time ago

d insignificant, weak, small in amount or degree, fragile, subtle

e immense, boundless,  wide, extensive; extremely big; huge, enormous, giant

Task 8. Fill in the gaps (complete the sentences using the underlined words):

Technology, clay, development, standard, observation, current, surveying, basic, leather

1. Paper maps have been created and used since the ... of ... geographic principles. 

2. In 1675, England marked the prime meridian at Greenwich, our... longitudinal... .

3. The earliest maps, that have withstood the test of time, were made on ... tablets, on... , stone, and wood.

4. Originally, maps were produced using land ... and ... .

5. Information ... and the Internet have shaped cartography today.

Task 9. Match the words on the left with their synonyms:

1 scholar                                         a arise, seem, look, emerge

2 inflexible                                      b enormous, big, giant, grandiose, hefty

3 appear                                          c unbending, unwavering, rigid

4 numerous                                     d multiple, countless

5 huge                                            e distant, far

6 remote                                         f scientist, researcher

Task 10. Define parts of speech and translate the words:

Allow, allowable, allowance, allowedly; appear, appearance; edit, edition, editor, editorial; observe, observation, observer, observed, observatory, observational; select, selection, selected, selective, selector;  region, regional; combine, combination.

Task 11. Match the words on the left with their opposites on the right:

1 appear                           a small, tiny, little

2 huge                              b prohibit, forbid, ban

3 allow                             c close, near

4 remote                          d inaccessible, unaffordable

5 available                       e vanish, fade away, disappear

Task 12. Try to give all the derivatives to the following words:

Access, digit, calculate, avail, abstract, transcend, analysis, vulnerable, standard.

Task 13. Which words go together according to the text? Match the words on the left with the corresponding words on the right:  

1 on the surface of                       a photography

2 to represent                              b principles

3 aerial                                        c GIS data

4 basic                                        d our surroundings

5 works                                      e large amounts of data   

6 to download                             f the Earth

7 a vehicle for delivering            g of art

Task 14. Give English equivalents and use them in sentences of your own:

Многочисленные карты мира, стали доступными каждому, бесплатно, исследовать мир, источник информации, хранить и анализировать данные, глобальное изменение климата, цифровая революция, городское планирование, природные ресурсы, решать проблемы, спутники, получать сигналы.

Task 15. Try to explain the meaning of the following words in English:  

Remote, survey, dynamic, scholar, expert, software, array, satellite, wetland, striking.

Comprehension check

Task 16. Correspond the facts from the text with the following dates and names. What do they refer to:  1675; Newton, 1687; 1993.

Task 17. Answer the following questions:

1. Who established the foundation of geographic analysis?  

2. What is the most common medium for producing maps?

3. What can you say about the evolution of maps? 

4. Why is the combination of maps and the Internet a significant development?

5. Why Google Earth and Google Search service are so popular?

6. What are the possible GIS applications? Why GIS are important for modern cartography?

7. What fields benefit from the development of GPS and geoinformatics?

8. How did digital mapmaking and the electronic maps influence the traditional cartography?

9. What are the advantages of the electronic, computerised maps?

10. What is the future of paper maps? Are paper maps in danger of becoming obsolete?

Task 18. Pick out 2-3 most interesting facts from the text. Do you know any other facts which were not mentioned in the text?

Task 19. Are the statements true or false? Give correct variants if necessary.

1. Aerial photography set the stage for remote sensing and advanced cartographic technique.

2. Maps have not changed at all since they were first used.

3. Many interactive map sites are offered today on the Internet.

4. The computer has made inroads into cartography, just as it has in other fields.

5. Paper maps and traditional cartography are going to disappear soon.  

Task 20. Guess the geographical riddles:

1. What falls on the water and never gets wet?

2. Two brothers look into the water,

    But cannot meet each other.

3. Why can’t the world ever come to an end?

Read and enjoy the cartographic jokes:

1. Q. Why was the map gesturing wildly?
   A. It was an animated map.

2. Q. Why are maps like fish?
   A. Both have scales.

Task 21. Give a brief summary of the information or write a review of the text.

Task 22. Translate into English: 

Как помог синтез игральных и топографических карт американским пленникам в немецких тюрьмах?

Известная американская компания-производитель игральных карт “Bicycle” во время второй мировой войны по заказу правительства США делала специальные колоды, которые отправлялись пленным американцам в немецкие тюрьмы. При намокании на картах проступали кусочки топографической карты, на которой были показаны маршруты побега.

Task 23. Speak individually (prepare a comprehensive talk) or arrange a discussion on the following items:

1. The paper map: past and future.

2. Computer technology in cartography.

3. The development of GIS and GPS.

4. Electronic maps.

5. How GIS works. Uses of GIS today.

6. Digital mapmaking and the decline of traditional cartography.

Task 24. Work in groups. Discuss the following saying:

“The new electronic interdependence recreates the world in the image of a global village”. Marshall McLuhan.  

Task 25. Write a passage of about 150-200 words on the topic “The achievements of cartographic science and our day-to-day life”.

Task 26. Cartographic quiz. Do you know? 

1. What is the evolution of cartographic technology?  

2. What were the first world atlases?

3. What is Tobler's first law of geography?

Answers:

Unit 1.  Riddles:  1. A globe.  2. Mississippi has four “i’s”.  

Quiz: 1. Terra Nullius.  2. John Snow's cholera pump. This pump was the centre of cholera transmission. He then persuaded the local authorities to close this pump, and the death rate dropped immediately. It was the 1st scientific spatial analysis in human history.  3. First thought by Pythogoras (550 BC) and first accepted by Aristotle (350 BC).

Unit 2.  Riddles:   1. A map.  2. Because it is in the middle of water.  

Quiz: 1. Europeans wanted to expand in America but were concerned about making accurate maps. Also, it was hard to come up with one single accurate map.  

2. Printing press.  3. One million colours.  

Unit 3.  Riddles:   1. A ruler.  2. Because both are constantly moving.

Quiz: 1. Sir Isaac Newton, England (300 years ago, suggested Earth is an oblate ellipsoid, bulging at Equator due to centrifugal force. English, 1643-1727), and Christiann Huygens (Holland) in 1600's.  2. Only at the equator. Above and below the equator, the distance of 1 degree on longitude gets smaller.  3. Divides the Earth into Eastern and Western hemispheres and is the reference line for all longitude locations east and west of that line.

Unit 4.  Riddles:  1. A road.  2. You will go into the forest as far as the centre, and then you will go out.

Quiz: 1. 1) Conformal projection (preserves shape) 2) Equidistant (preserves distances) 3) Equal Area (preserves area).

2. A drawing.   3. Eratosthenes (ca. 275-195 BCE) improved map of the World, calculated the circumference of the earth, introduced the idea of meridians and parallels.

Unit 5. Riddles: 1.  Because both contain sand. 2. You can’t take any earth out of the hole, because there is no earth in the hole.  

Quiz:  1. John Snow (1854) in London.  2.  The love of a particular place.  

3. Dividing line for Northern and Southern hemispheres and references all latitude locations north or south of that line.

Unit 6. Riddles:  1.  The letter “b”.  2. A river.

Quiz: 1. None; they all induce distortions.  2. European maps of the “dark” ages, were 'oriented to the east.' After compass it made more sense to place north at the top during use.  3. A network of 24 satellites that continuously transmit coded information, which makes it possible to precisely identify locations on Earth by measuring distance from satellites.

Unit 7. Riddles:   1. A shadow. 2. The banks of a river.   3. Because it is round.

Quiz:  1. The 12th century - magnetic compass;  16th century - mechanical printing press; 17th century - optical technology; 19th century - photo-chemical technology; 1950 - electronic/computer technology. Manual techniques are still used today.

2. 1570: Abraham Ortelius's Theatrum, the first world atlas, was published. 1595: Mercator's Atlas was published. This used a map of the world with a Mercator projection.  3. Everything is related to everything else, but nearby things are more closely related.

Recommended Web-sources

1.  http://www.cartogis.org   

2.  Cartography flashcards. http://quizlet.com/19163420/cartography-flash-cards/ 

3. Geography puzzles.

http://www.lessoncorner.com/puzzles/crossword/28048  

4. http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/cartocom/cartocom_ftoc.html 

Cartographic communication.

5. Historical maps. http://www.libs.uga.edu/darchive/hargrett/maps/maps.html 

Bibliography

1. Cook, D., J. Symanzik, J. J. Majure and N. Cressie. 1997. Dynamic graphics in a GIS: more examples using linked software. Computers & Geosciences: Special Issue on Exploratory Cartographic Visualization 23(4), 371-85.

2. Crampton, J. W. 1999. Online mapping: theoretical context and practical applications. In M. Peterson, W. Cartwright & G. Gartner (eds.), Multimedia Cartography. Berlin: Springer Verlag, pp. 291-304.

3. Dent, B. D. 1999. Cartography: Thematic Map Design. 5th ed. New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.

4. Golledge, G. R. and R. J. Stimson, 1997. Spatial Behavior: A Geographic Perspective. New York: Guilford Press.

5. Harley, J.B. 1990. Cartography, ethics and social theory. Cartographica 27(2).

6. MacEachren, A. M. 1994. Some Truth with Maps: A primer on Symbolization and Design. Washington: AAG Publications.