Municipal autonomous general educational institution

«School № 169»

«The translations problems of basic lexical units of English»

Teacher: Kalentyev A.А

Nizhny Novgorod 2019-2020  academic year

Introduction

1. General information about neologisms and problems of their translation

1.1 Nation of neologism

1.2 Classification of neologisms

1.3 Methods of neologisms` formation

1.4 Problems of neologisms` translation

2.  General information about synonyms and problems of their translation 

2.1 Notion of synonym

2.2 Classification of synonyms

2.3 Main functions of synonyms

2.4 Problems of synonyms` translation

2.5 Ways of synonyms` translation

3. General information about homonyms and problems of their translation 

3.1 Notion of homonymy

3.2 Classification of homonyms

3.3 The concept of homonymic series.

3.4 Problems of homonyms` translation

4. General information of antonyms and problems of their translation

4.1 Notion of antonym

4.2 Classification of antonyms

4.3 Main functions of antonyms

4.4 Problems of antonyms` translation

4.5 Ways of antonyms` translation

5. General information about paronyms and problems of their translation

5.1 Notion of paronymy

5.2 Classification of paronyms

5.3 Problems of paronyms` translation

6. General information about phraseology and phraseological units and problems of their translation

6.1 Notion of phraseology and phraseological units

6.2 Classification of phraseology

6.3 Problems of phraseological units` translation

6.4 Ways of phraseology and phraseological units` translation

                                           INTRODUCTION
       In recent times the borders between the countries are increasingly disappearing. The countries are in need of communication and cooperation between each other. Nowadays, there is more and more opportunities to come into contact with the way people live on all continents by all over the world due to mass media, the unlimited opportunities of travelling and gradual elements` penetration of foreign cultures into everyday life of each of us.

         However, we need to know the language of one or another nation for communication with countries, peoples and nations. That is why we resort to translation of our speech into another language. From olden times, translation played an important role in people's lives. It helps owners of one culture to get to know more closely the culture, customs and literature of another.

        First of all, translation is the process of transferring content expressed in one language by means of another language. Translation is re-expression or recoding. However, such recoding is not an objective natural process because it is made by a person. Everyone has an individuality and creativity. These two factors allow a person to choose from several or many possible translation one which he or she likes more. Therefore, sometimes they even speak of the heuristic nature of the process of translation which explained by freedom of choice.

        As for the translation of fiction special attention should be paid to the emotions that the author wanted to convey to his readers while the form of the transfer should be not recognized. The translator should remember that the emotional meaning of a word can cause both positive and negative associations. And words can be matched in the object-logical meaning but they do not be matched in the emotional. However, there are such lexical units that complicate the translation process. Such basic units are: neologisms, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms and phraseological units.

         Solving of translation problem is still important because the main aim of translation is passing of information and giving effect of texts or speech. After all, in our time communication with foreign countries and their inhabitants are increasing. To communicate with them we should not only know the language well but also know such things which make it difficult for us.

The purpose of this work is to study lexical units which make it difficult for people in translation.

Achieving the purpose of the work implies the following tasks:

1. To make the definition of each lexical unit;
2. To learn their functions;
3. To study the classification of each lexical unit;
4. To learn the difficulty of their translation and what knowledge they need to know for being able to translate them;
5. Explain how to work with such units correctly.

Our work consists of six chapters which contain general information about each lexical unit, problems of their translation and methods of solving these problems.

1. GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT NEOLOGISMS AND PROBLEMS OF THEIR TRANSLATION

                                   1.1 Neologism`s notion

        Neologisms are newly formed words and words combinations which appeared in a language owing to sociopolitical change, equipment`s and science`s development, appearing new living conditions. They appear for denoting new earlier unknown thing and phenomenon or for expression new notion.

         Still we cannot solve the problem what are the criteria for referring this or that vocabulary unit to neologisms. Firstly, we explored the neologism`s notion. We have learned that term «neologism» treats to new words which were unknown earlier. For example, popular and already known word selfie is translated as elevation of camera under yourself and taking photo of yourself. Or word ringtone which appeared recently means a jingle which is emitted by the phone with incoming call.

          New words or phrases are perceived as neologisms until the objects, phenomena or concepts which they designate become habitual. Over time, as a rule, such units become commonplace and enter the vocabulary of the language. For example, «laptop», «CDs», «e-mails» in English and words such as «slogan», «trend» and «bonus» in Russian were recently neologism. Nowadays, objects and concepts which they denote are not perceived as something new and unusual and these words are not already neologisms.

                                    1.2 Classification of neologisms

In modern language there are 2 groups of neologisms: linguistic and authorial.
          Language neologisms are created mainly to denote new objects, concepts which do not yet have names in a language. Or as new names for already existing objects or concepts. They enter the passive vocabulary and they are marked in dictionaries. They are used by native speakers in their everyday speech many of them are known and understandable. If the existence of a language neologism is justified, rather soon the neologism will enter the active vocabulary and will stop to be recognized as a new word. They are appearing by follow ways:

• a new word or a new lexical unit appears in the language. It appears through borrowing. For example, cleaning, fake for Russian and cinematheque, discotheque for English. Or the emergence of a new word according to the word-formation models existing in the language from the "old" word. For example, word ampelography is made by models of words such as geography, biography. Or neologism-borrowing is computer. Such neologisms are called lexical;
• appearing a new meaning from the already existing word. For example, word cool which means coldness now can mean something awesome. In the future, such value can come off and to become a form a new word-homonym. Such neologisms are called semantic.

Authors', individual-stylistic neologisms are created by writers, poets to create a text. Neologisms of this type are "attached" to the context. They have the author. They are called to remain unusual, fresh. Author's neologisms, formed by productive models and they are called potential words. Sometimes author's neologisms become real words and enter the literary language.

There is also a separate group of neologisms:

Occasionalisms are words created by authors for certain stylistic purposes which lose their expressiveness and are incomprehensible to the native speaker outside of contexts.

                          1.3 Methods of neologisms` formation

Usually new words arise on the base of already existing words in the text and morphemes. Analysis of these words and morphemes can provide the translator with a serious help in understanding the meaning of the neologism. For this, it is necessary to know well the methods of word formation in the English language. The most common ways of forming neologisms are:

1. Affixal method (prefix and suffixal methods);
2. Composition;
3. Conversion;
4. Reduction;
5. Borrowing from others languages;
6. Fusion.

• The derivative word is formed by attaching derivational affixes (suffixes, prefixes, etc.) to the derivative, the base (or the forming word) in the affixative way of word formation. In this case, many pre-existing suffixes assume new values. Thanks to this method, more than 1/5 new words appear. For example: the word "nationality" formed with a suffix of theology, and the word "non-intersection" formed with the help of the suffix non.

• The whole words are added in composing of words. It is one of the most ancient, universal and widespread ways of word formation in the English language which has not lost its activity even now. It is worth noting that more than one-third of all words in modern English are compound words. Examples of such words: earworm (a song that constantly turns in the head) is formed by the word ear and worm, food baby (literally meaning a child from eating) means the belly of a person who likes to eat.

• The word of one part of speech functionally passes into another part of the speech in converting. With this method we get only 3% of the total number of neologisms. The most popular ways of their formation are the conversion of the names of nouns to verbs and the conversion of verbs into nouns. For example, from the noun amazon (the name of the online store), we get the verb to amazon (do shopping on Amazon), from the noun version we get the verb to version (create a new version of something).        

• Aabbreviations some of the sound composition of the original word is omitted with shortening of words. Although, this method does not play such a leading role as composing or word-production  it exists in the English language for a long time and has received special productivity in our time. It should be noted that abbreviations are mainly used as a form of assimilation of borrowed words in English language. Thanks to which these foreign words approximate their sound image to primordially English with their characteristic monosyllables. For example, the word desporter was reduced in English and turned into the word sport, changing not only the sound form, but also the meaning, and the word fan appeared as a result of the reduction of the fanatic.      

• The process of mastering a word, expression or meaning of another language by one language occurs in borrowing. Borrowings adapt in the language pass the necessary semantic and phonetic change. Adaptation to the realities of a particular language is the main feature that distinguishes borrowing from foreign words. Foreign words retain traces of their foreign language origin. Such traces can be phonetic, spelling, grammatical and semantic features. A lot of examples of borrowings can be cited: the words promoter dealer end with «er» then we can say that they are borrowed from the English language.           

• New words are formed by adding two (or more) words, the foundations of producing words with or without a connecting vowel when a new word is formed. As a result of addition, a compound word is always formed, that is, a word with several roots. For example, the word frenemy (maintaining friendly relations with the person to whom the dislike is tested) is formed from the words «friend» and «enemy».

                        1.4 Problems of neologisms` translation

It can be assumed that the translator for the first time encountering a neologism proper naturally has no idea of ​​the concept designated by him proceeding from the definition of the term "neologism". Therefore, the meaning of the neologism has to be clarified most often from the context. The main difficulty in translation of neologisms is understanding the meaning of a new word.

Actually the translation is relatively simpler when meaning of neologism is already known to the translator. If a new word is missing in the English-Russian dictionary then you should try to find it in the English-English explanatory dictionary. Many neologisms can be found in dictionaries and sections on slang. Nevertheless, dictionaries for objective reasons cannot fully reflect all newly emerging words if only because lexicographers are careful not to include in the dictionaries the so-called "oddial" neologisms, that is, individual neoplasms introduced by individual authors for this case. Such words are often "unviable" and disappear as quickly as they appear.

1.5 Ways of translating neologisms

In the process of translation, words are usually distinguished in two stages:

• understanding the meaning of a word in context;
• transfer of this value by means of the translating language            

The first stage plays an important role, and the latter is only a purely technical matter in the case of the translation of the neologism. Although, it is important to solve it by the methods which most acceptable for the translating language. Within the general concept of context, a narrow context and a wide context vary.            

Under the narrow context we mean the linguistic units that make up the environment of a given word which does not go beyond the sentence. It can be divided into syntactic and lexical. The syntactic context is the syntactic structure in which the given word, phrase or (subordinate) sentence is used. A lexical context is a collection of specific lexical units, words, and stable word combinations surrounded by a given unit.            

     While a broad context is a collection of linguistic units surrounding a given unit within limits lying outside the given sentence. This can be the context of a group of sentences, a paragraph, a chapter or even the whole work.

           A spelling criterion deserves special attention the essence of which is to consider any complex written together or through a hyphen as a compound word and a complex whose components are written separately as word combinations during the translation of neologisms in English texts.

            Taking into account the syntactic context will allow the translator to determine the neologism's belonging to one of the parts of speech but understanding the meaning of the neologism deciding is the consideration of the lexical context. For example, consider the proposal: a policeman estimated the guilt of a person as a result of an accident. The word "hypothesis" is a neologism, and we need to know its meaning. Having studied this word, we see that it is formed from two words: conjectures and estimates. We understand that this is a noun, because there is an article before it. Based on the context, we understand that the policeman most likely did something like a conclusion about the loss of a person as a result of an accident.

Proceeding from all above-stated we can conclude that the word "point" means an approximate estimation of a situation.

2. GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT SINONYMS AND PROBLEMS OF THEIR TRANSLATION                                         

                                            2.1 Notion of synonym

        Synonyms are words which are belonging to the same part of speech. They are different in pronunciation and writing but they have a similar lexical meaning. Although, synonyms designate the same concept they tend to differ from each other in some shades of meaning. The relationship between such words as well as between other synonyms of the same word is called synonymous.
      It should be noted that synonyms appeared and appear in our speech constantly. This is an absolutely continuous and endless process. Therefore, we can say that many synonyms are also neologisms at some time. An example of synonyms can be the words «chilly», «cool», «frigid», «frosty», «gelid», «icy» which are all synonyms for the word cold.

                                      2.2Classification of synonyms

Academician Vinogradov proposed to divide the synonymy into three groups: ideographic, stylistic and absolute. The classification proposed by him is successfully applied by linguists and for the description of synonyms in the English language.                                                        

• Ideographic (semantic) synonyms are words which have the same meaning but differ in shades of meaning. With the help of ideographic synonyms native speakers can convey the subtlest shades in the meanings of words choosing at the same time more and more lexical units allowing
  Limit precision to detail the views of the observed facts and objects. Stylistic synonyms are also divided into 3 groups:

1. Synonyms which denote the scope of actions or phenomena. In this case, the synonyms may have a wide or narrower meaning. For example, to cook and its synonym for boil up this means more specific actions.
2.  Words which have a wider meaning than their synonyms. They show the degree of a specific feature. For example, fast and its synonym flesh-like (lightning fast), which shows a greater degree of sign of speed.
3. Synonyms that describe categories of concreteness or abstractness. For example, the synonyms road and way describe abstract values, and the words exist and live -the category of concreteness.

• Stylistic synonyms are words which are used in different styles but they have the same meaning. They can serve to replace spoken words with literary words. The types of synonyms of this series have a non-uniform significance. Among these synonyms, the following groups are distinguished:

1. Words that describe categories from different historical periods. For example, aeroplane instead of which nowadays use a plane.
2.  Words that have a different stylistic connotation which can be bookish, official, generally accepted, colloquial, ethereal, etc. They are such words which are used in different speech spheres. For example, to chill out more often used in colloquial speech. In the official style can be replaced by the word to rest.
3.  Words can be general, professional, slang and dialect. For example, the word to flag is considered slang, and its synonym sell is literary.
4.  Words that denote not the direct name of an object or action but its euphemism. For example, the word lavatory denotes the euphemism of the word toilet.
5. Words with different lexical origins - Russian and foreign. For example, the word lack of something has a translation in Russian, but its synonym deficit does not have, since it is borrowed from the English language.

Absolute synonyms are completely interchangeable. Therefore they do not attach additional semantic meaning. In this regard, the number of absolute synonyms in virtually any language is small. The existence of such synonyms is not eternal. Over time, absolute synonyms begin to receive additional meanings and semantic or stylistic nuances and cease to be absolute. For example, the words to faithful and to believe were once synonymous but now they denote different actions.

                              2.3 Main functions of synonyms

The most important semantic functions of synonyms are substitution and refinement.

• The substitution function consists in the mutual replacement of synonyms following one after another in one sentence or a fragment of the text. First of all, this function is typical for complete synonyms. This allows you to diversify speech and avoid unnecessary repetition.
• The refinement function consists in revealing the properties and various characteristic features of the designated objects and phenomena of reality. The fact is that objects and phenomena are often multifaceted. So one synonym is not enough. Two or more synonyms are used. So that mismatched semes open these polyhedral objects. Two types of contexts are possible when specifying:

1. In the neutralizing context the distinction between synonyms is not essential for a given context.  In it, there is, as it were, a folding of synonyms.
2.  In a differentiating context synonyms and their non-coinciding semes are contrasted. This is also used to clarify the idea.

The most important stylistic functions are the stylistic evaluation function and the style-based text organization function.

• The style assessment function is based on a different style characteristic of words.
• The function of the style organization of the text shows with what stylistic affiliation a synonym used in the text and determines its stylistic affiliation.

                           2.4 Problems of translation of synonyms

One of the main problems in translation is the correct choice of the necessary word from the existing series of synonyms. This choice will depend on the style and situation of the translated text which only a professional translator can do. But this is not the only problem that can arise when translating a text into English. In technical texts, a large proportion account for semantic synonyms.

        Their translation often causes difficulties. At the same time, knowledge of the theoretical issues of the translation process for proper understanding
scientific and technical text and its transfer to another language are sometimes not sufficient; there is a need for background knowledge, an understanding of the conceptual spheres that describe synonym terms. Often problems arise when the two terms can be translated equally into Russian but the difference in meaning plays an important role. This allows the reader to compile the most complete picture of the described object or phenomenon.

                                 2.5 Ways of synonyms` translation

          The main method of translation synonyms is to replace, select a functional analogue of the synonymic series. Let's consider some ways of synonyms translation:

• Accepting the replacement of synonyms of the source language with synonyms in the target language. Such a method is realized in the event that in these languages there are synonyms that correspond to each other according to ideographic, stylistic and expressive characteristics.
• Selection of a functional analogue. With this method selection of an adequate synonym in the translation language takes place performing the same functions as the synonym in the original language.
• Receiving a generalization or concretizing the meaning of a synonym. This method is used in cases where instead of the dominant word the main word of the synonymic series members of the given series are used - antonyms expressing species values.          

After studying the ways of translating synonyms we conclude that in the process of translating synonyms we should focus on the types of synonyms, their functions, their style characteristics, in order to achieve an adequate translation. It is also necessary to take into account the nature of the links between the dominant of the synonymic series and the members of this series preserving these links in the target language.

3. GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT HOMONYMS AND PROBLEMS OF THEIR TRANSLATION

3.1 Notion of homonymy

Homonyms are words which are pronounced and written identically but have different unrelated lexical meanings. There is still no clear definition of the basic concepts of homonymy. Moreover, some of the most important concepts of homonymy have not been identified at all.

 The terminology is not orderly because there is no classification that adequately reflects the nature of formal-semantic relations between different classes of homonyms. The quantitative characteristics of homonymous series are poorly studied. That is why, study of lexical homonyms, the establishment of their place in the language system and the establishment of problems connected with the translation of homonyms in the English language is especially urgent.

The phenomenon of homonymy has long attracted the attention of scientists. The clearest idea of homonymy as a phenomenon that is not optional for the language and it is not subject to linguistic research. It was expressed by V.I. Abaev who contrasted with the homonymy of polysemy (the word had two or more meanings), wrote: "Polysemy is an interesting phenomenon in terms of the   problem of language and thinking. Polysemy always hides the effort of human thought in search of new and new means of cognition, expression, expression. Behind homonymy, nothing is hidden, except the game of chance. Therefore, the cognitive interest of polysemy is enormous.

The cognitive interest of homonymy is insignificant." A similar idea was also expressed by S.I. Ozhegov who believed that homonymy is a "matter of historical accident"and that it is "not a linguistic, but a collection problem." Thus, it can be noted that the question of randomness or pattern of homonyms in the language is not so simple. On the one hand, it is well known that homonyms appear in the language due to various kinds of random causes.

On the other hand, the fact of widespread homonymy in the languages of the world casts doubt on the view of homonymy as a random phenomenon and suggests its regularity in the language. The more the grammatical categories of homonyms differ. The more likely that their meanings have nothing in common and even more so generally speaking the grounds for believing that homonymy is generated by random factors related to the nature of word formation in natural languages. Homonymy (except when it is due to purely coincidental coincidences of word forms) is a "disguised" polysemy. "It is also difficult to name a common definition of homonymy.

Despite the fact that all authors speaking of homonymy understand under homonyms it would seem the same a single generally accepted definition of homonyms is still not there. There are dozens of different definitions in the literature common to which is only the recognition of the identity of linguistic units in terms of expression and their difference in content but as to which signs of the expression plan and content plan are essential for establishing homonymy and how they relate to each other there are serious differences. One of the earliest definitions of homonyms belongs to Sh. Bally, who calls homonyms "two signs having identical signifiers and different signifiers." This definition is the broadest of all available and too general. Let's consider some more modern definitions of homonymy and homonyms for more full disclosure of these concepts. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia gives the following definition: "Homonymy, a concept that plays an important role in logic, logical semantics and semiotics ... is a graphic and (or) phonetic coincidence of words (and in general signs, signatures and phrases) having a different meaning and (or ) meaning ". These definitions give only a general description of the phenomenon of homonymy and homonyms. It should be noted that this issue requires a more in-depth study process to understand how homonyms are created and how to work with them.

                                3.2 Classification of homonyms

Classification of homonyms practically does not cause disputes among scientists but there are different individual approaches to distinguishing different types of homonyms. Many linguists both domestic and foreign have developed their own classifications, deepening and expanding the classical classification on the basis of one criterion or another. Homographs of complete and partial homonyms, homophones, homographs and homonyms are identified in the Dictionary-Directory of Linguistic Terms.

• Full homonyms are words that completely match in writing and sound. For example, the word ruler (an instrument for drawing) is identical in writing and sounding to the word ruler (regent).
•  Partial homonyms are words that do not coincide in grammar, parts of speech or pronunciation. Partial homonyms, in turn, are divided into three groups:

1. Homophones are words that sound the same but they are written in different ways and have different meanings. Homophones can be a word and whole phrases. For example, the words meat written through a combination of "ea" and the word meet written through a combination of it are read alike.
2. Homographs are words that coincide in their spelling but have a different sound and meaning. To homographs can be treated as words having different meanings and different forms of the same word. For example, a word row can be read through the sound [a] or through the sound [o].
3. Omoforms are words that sound the same in only some grammatical forms and most often belong to different parts of speech. For example, the word fly is a noun and the word to fly is a verb which in the forms of past times or in the gerund will be mutated and will no longer be homonymous.

                          3.3. The concept of homonymic series.

It is necessary to dwell on one essential feature of homonyms which is by no means always taken into account in the existing definitions-the correlative nature of homonyms.

Homonyms like synonyms and some other lexical units are a correlative category. This category is very important in the compilation of dictionaries and the translation of homonyms. The word falls into the category of homonyms only if it is related to some other word (or words) having the same form, but different meaning.

Thus homonyms appear in the language not individually but in groups. It follows that the main structural unit of the homonymy of the language is not a single homonym, but a group of words homonymous to each other is a homonymous series (just as the synonymic structural unit is not a separate synonym but a synonymic series).

There are two types of homonymous series are the series formed by homonymous lexemes and the series formed by homonymous word forms. Homonymic series of the level of lexemes are called homogroups, series of the level of word forms are called omokomplektam. Omogroup is a collection of all words (lexemes) of a language that are homonymous with each other. In other words, satisfying the definition of homonyms, presented above.

It is sufficient that they coincide in at least one of the grammatical forms for the homonyms to enter the homogroup. A homonym is understood as the totality of all available in the language of word forms that are in homonymous relations with each other regardless of their belonging to the same word or to different words.

                           3.4 Problems of homonyms` translation

Proceeding from the definition of homonym we understand that the problem of homonymy is part of a more general problem of the correlation of form and content in the language which makes it necessary for its deep theoretical study. Thus, the study of the phenomenon of homonymy also meets the needs of applied linguistics. Homonymy is a certain hindrance in the communication process.

Often the listener is in difficulty which of several different meanings expressed by a given language form should be chosen to correctly understand the message. Difficulties can arise not only from the listener but also from the speaker who in order to optimize the communication process tries to construct a statement so that it can be understood unequivocally.

Homonymy also introduces difficulties in the process of learning a foreign language by students and students because analysis of such forms makes it difficult to perceive a foreign language or message.

No less difficulties are caused by homonymy when constructing automatic text processing systems as well as in lexicographic work when defining the boundaries between individual words, when developing methods for representing homonyms in a dictionary, when selecting units of the frequency dictionary calculation, etc. In turn this leads to difficulties and problems in translation. All these factors determine the importance and relevance of the study of the phenomenon of homonymy as well as the problems associated with the translation of homonyms.

 This urgency determines the contradiction between the need to develop a methodology for the translation of homonyms and insufficient knowledge of the problems of lexical homonymy and the techniques of its translation. That is we can conclude that there are no definite ways of translating homonyms. In their translation we can rely on the context in which they exist

4. GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT ANTONYMS AND PROBLEMS OF THEIR TRANSLATION

                                 4.1 Notion of antonym

An important place in the lexical system of the language is occupied by words related to each other by opposite meanings. Antonyms are words of one part of speech which different in sounding and writing. And also which are having directly opposite lexical meanings.

An antonymic couple is composed of words from different parts of speech. It is permissible only in a specific text with a certain stylistic function. One part of speech is not the only condition under which the words of the opposite meaning can be called antonyms. There must be a common sign between these words. Both of these concepts should describe the feeling or time, or space, or quality and quantity. In that case they will be antonyms.

Most often, opposition is observed in the presence of a qualitative feature. Therefore among the antonyms qualitative adjectives predominate adverbs formed from qualitative adjectives as well as nouns and verbs. Not all words enter into an antonymic relationship. Nouns with correct meaning, numerals and main of terms do not have antonym.

Words with the opposite meaning form rows like synonyms. But unlike the synonymous series which is characterized by openness the anthonymic series is closed. The number of members in the antonymous series is limited. In the antonymous series, only two words are included. Therefore it is customary to speak of antonymic pairs or of a binary series.
However, it happens. So one of the antonyms can resist simultaneously two lexical units (and even more). Therefore several pairs are formed. For example, antonyms hot-cold (frozen). Antonyms perform a stylistic function which is realized in the creation of some stylistic figures antitheses, oxymoron, etc.  

2. Classification of antonyms

Opposite values have the mass of classifications from different points of view.From the point of view of structural classification antonyms are divided into:

• Lexical antonyms are antonyms which have different bases. Two groups are also distinguished among single-root antonyms:

1. Enantiosis are words which meaning of the opposite is expressed by the same word. Such an antonymy is called an intra-condition. The semantic possibilities of this antonym are realized by means of context (lexically) or special constructions (syntactically). Such antonyms can be attributed to homonyms.
2. Antonymy-euphemisms are words which are expressing the semantics of the opposite are reserved, soft. As a rule, they are formed with the help of a negative prefix. For example, the word legal takes the opposite meaning with the addition of the il-illegal suffix.

• Among the multi-rooted antonyms modern researchers distinguish the so-called antonyms-transforms. These are words that express the relation of the opposite in both the original and the changed utterance, but not in the ordinary, direct order but in the reverse describe the same situation (action, attitude) in terms of its different participants.
• One-root antonyms is antonyms whose antonymy is transmitted either by means of mutually opposite consoles attached to the same word or by adding a prefix giving the original word the opposite meaning. Such antonyms can also be attributed to euphemisms.
  .

Depending on the type of opposition expressed the antonyms reveal the following basic semantic types:

1. Antonimys which express a qualitative contrast. Qualitative words which form the largest class of the antonymy of the language. They realize the opposite contrast. And gradual (or stepped) oppositions are characteristic. For example: excellent - good - middling - bad - awful.
2. Antonyms which express complimentarity (complementarity). A comparatively small number of antonyms express a complementary contrast. It is not gradual since the entire scale of opposition is represented here by two opposite members which complementary to each other. For example: not single-married (married).
3. Antonyms which express the opposite direction of actions, signs and properties. A large number of words expressing the vector opposition (mutual counter-orientation) are represented by verbs, adjectives, verbal nouns, adverbs and other categories of words expressing the direction of actions and attributes. For example, actions such as: take (take) - put (lay), start (finish).

Also antonyms can be singled out as general language (or simply linguistic) and occasional (contextual-speech or individual) depending on the distinctive features possessed by words with the opposite meaning:

• Language antonyms are characterized by socially conscious systemic relations, stable membership in a certain lexico-grammatical paradigm, regularity of reproduction in the same (or similar) syntagmatic conditions, fixedness in vocabulary composition, relatively stable style affiliation and stylistic essence, etc. Such antonyms exist in the lexico-semantic system of language relatively independently. They include all those words that are fixed in modern dictionaries of the Russian language. For example, smart- foolish, bright- dark.
• Occasional (contextual) antonyms are an individual-stylistic use of a word that is not fixed by popular use.

          4.3 Main functions of antonyms

Antonym is a lexical means for constructing an antithesis.

• The opposite of the antithesis is the reception which consists in using of antonyms with negation. It is used to emphasize in the described subject the absence of a clearly expressed quality.
• Anthony is the basis of an oxymoron. It is a stylistic figure that creates a new concept by combining contrasting meanings of words.
• Stringing of antonymic pairs is using antonyms to emphasize the completeness of the scope of the depicted.
• The Anaphrasis function is using one of the antonyms while the other should be used

                              4.3 Problems of antonyms` translation  

In dealing with antonyms we are faced with almost the same problems as when working with synonyms. To the majority of words you can select several antonyms which in turn will be synonymous with each other. That is, the main difficulty in translating antonyms is the correct selection of the necessary word from the synonymic series of antonyms of the given word. Also for the translation of antonyms one must have knowledge of the theoretical issues of the translation process.

                             4.4 Ways of antonyms` translation

For many years, theoretical linguists have entered into discussions on the main problems of literary translation trying to find solutions to these problems. This took a huge place in the theory and practice of translation. Struggling with the efforts of the interpreter they introduced various transformations into the translation. For example, they introduced substitutions which are the most diverse translational transformations since in the process of translation. They may be subject to grammatical units word forms, parts of speech, sentence members, syntactic links and lexical, in connection with which one can talk about grammatical lexical substitutions.

A vivid example is the anthonymic translation. According to Komissarov the antonymic translation represents an extreme degree of semantic development in the translation. The essence of receiving an antonymic translation is to use a word or phrase in the translation that has a value opposite to that of the corresponding English word or phrase in the original. Proceeding from this we see that theorists have agreed on the opinion. That is the antonymic translation is "the replacement of the negative or interrogative form of the sentence by an affirmative one or vice versa." The reception of an antonymic translation covers also such cases, when the translation uses not just the opposite in meaning Russian word, but other words close to it in meaning. Similar words will also be antonymic.

 We conclude that the antonymic translation is "the replacement of the negative or interrogative form of the proposal by an affirmative one or vice versa." The essence of the reception of an antonymic translation is the use in translation of a word or phrase that has a value opposite to that of the corresponding English word or word combination in the original.

5. GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT PARONYMS AND PROBLEMS OF THEIR TRANSLATION

                                       5.1 Notion of paronym  

        Paronyms are words which are similar in sound, close in pronunciation, lexical and grammatical affiliation and by kinship of roots but having different meanings. Paronyms is belong to one part of speech in most cases. Sometimes paronyms are also called false brothers.

        In the language there are relatively few paronyms but their role cannot be underestimated. It is necessary to correctly understand the meaning of words from the paronymic couple in order to avoid speech errors. The lexical values ​​of the components of a pair are always delimited. It cannot be replaced by any paronym by its paired component. Erroneous interchange makes the context meaningless or related to another subject area.

         Paronyms can be found in colloquial speech, fiction, poetry, and scientific journals. Paronymy is one of the words or even both the incompetence of the speaker (writer) in the sphere of activity from which the word is taken due to the lack of knowledge of the meaning. As one of the phenomena of the language paronym has long been used by speakers, writers, poets, publicists. It underlies the creation of a special kind of stylistic figure - the so-called paromnosia (or paronomasia), the essence of which consists in deliberate mixing or in deliberate collision of words-paronyms.

        It is especially important to pay attention to paronyms in studying of foreign languages since many paronyms cannot be distinguished by students of a foreign language due to discrepancies in the articulatory base. Some paronyms are widely distributed in the language and are reflected in dictionaries.                            

                                5.2 Classification of paronyms

During the studying of paronyms two divisions were identified:

• Morphological division is a division which is divided into three groups.

1. Suffiksalnye paronyms, which have related bases and are formed with the help of suffixes. This group is the largest and most actively replenished group of paronyms. Most of the paronyms from this group are adjectives. For example, the word economic (economic) has the same osonovova with the word economica (economical), but another suffix.
2.  Prefix paronyms are words that are formed by attaching consonant prefixes to the root. The peculiarity of such formed single-root consonant words is the presence of stress on the same syllable. For example, the words "effect" and "affect" have different prefixes, but similar fundamentals.
3. Root paronyms-consonant words having different roots. Such paronyms do not have a semantic connection. This group is insignificant in number, mainly consisting of nouns. For example, the word judicial (judicial) and its judicious (reasonable) have different bases.

• The lexico-semantic division is also subdivided into 3 groups. The first two groups are similar to the root and prefix groups of morphological division paronyms. The last group is etymological paronyms. In this group, attention is paid to the origin of words. The group includes the same words, borrowed from different closely related languages, repeatedly borrowed in different meanings, formed under the influence of folk etymology.      

             5.3 Problems of paronyms` translation

Having studied the properties of paronyms we can conclude that they have many similarities with homonyms. The main one is that both these concepts include groups of words that are similar in their meanings. Based on this, we can say that when we working with homonyms and paronyms we are faced with almost identical problems. So the main problem in the practice of oral and written speech in the translation of paronyms is the selection of the desired word from a couple of paronyms. There are no definite ways to solve this problem. The translator must have the necessary knowledge of the meaning of the words-paronyms and can rely solely on the context, to justify the meaning of this paronym.

6. GENERAL  INFORMATION ABOUT  PHRASEOLOGY AND PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS AND PROBLEMS OF THEIR TRANSLATION

                 6.1 Notion of phraseology and phraseological units

Phraseological units and phraseology  are a stable combination of words. They can be peculiar only to a given language. The meaning of such combinations is not determined by the meaning of the words included in it which are taken separately. Due to the fact that phraseology (or idiom) is often using. It is impossible to translate verbatim (meaning is lost), difficulties of translation and understanding may arise among foreigners. On the other hand, such phraseological units give the language a vivid emotional coloring. Often the grammatical meaning of idioms does not correspond to the norms of modern language, but is grammatical archaisms.

Phraseology is used as a whole that is not subject to further decomposition and usually does not allow within itself the rearrangement of its parts. The semantic cohesion of phraseological units can vary within fairly wide limits: from the non-derivability of the meaning of phraseology from its constituent words in phraseological fusion (idioms) to phraseological combinations with meaning resulting from the values ​​constituting the combination. The transformation of a word combination into a stable phraseological unit is called lexicalization. Different scientists interpret the concept of phraseology and its properties in different ways. But the most consistently distinguished different scientific properties of phraseology are: reproducibility, stability, supernormality (separately) belonging to the nominative inventory of the language

                                 6.2 Classification of phraseology

Linguists have explored various aspects of phraseology, but until today there is no common opinion on the scope of phraseology, there is no unified classification of phraseological units from the point of view of their semantic fusion. For the first time the classification of phraseological turns from the point of view of their semantic cohesion in French was presented by Bally. As many scientists after Bally created their own and improved existing classifications.
         The first classification of phraseological turnover from the point of view of their semantic cohesion was proposed by Bally, who distinguished three types of phraseological units. Vinogradov creatively revised the classification of Bally, offering three types of phraseological turns: fusion, unity and combination. Shansky offers a classification of phraseological units, consisting of four groups, developed on the basis of the classification of V.Vinogradov.

          This classification is today generally accepted. Under the semantic
Schansky understands "the relationship that exists between the general meaning of phraseology and the" private "meanings of its components.

• From the point of view of semantic cohesion, four groups of phraseological turns can be distinguished:

1. Phraseological coalescence is "a semantically indivisible phraseological revolution in which its integral meaning is completely inconsistent with the meanings of its components." In the phraseological fusion of words with their independent meanings, there is no meaning, therefore the meaning of phraseology does not follow from the meanings of the individual components. For example: As cool as a cucumber, To draw the wool over someone's eyes. The main difficulty in the phraseological fusion is the presence of obsolete and therefore incomprehensible words, the presence of grammatical archaisms, the absence of a living syntactic the connection between its components, the presence of syntactic disorder and non-dissociation. Phraseological fusion has an unmotivated meaning, has no imagery.
2. Phraseological unity is a semantically indivisible and integral phraseological movement, the meaning of which is motivated by the meanings of its constituent words. The indivisible meaning of phraseological unity arises from the merging of the values ​​of its constituent words into a single generalized-portable one. For example: to play with edge-tool (to play with fire), as plain as the nose on your face (clearly, as a day). Phraseological unity allows the insertion of other words: "pull (service) strap." Phraseological unity is semantically motivated, has imagery.
3.  Phraseological combination is a phraseological phrase, in which there are words with both free meaning and phraseologically related. Phraseological combinations are formed from words with a free and phraseologically related meaning. For example: bitter cold, roll his eyes.
4. Phraseological expression is a phraseological phrase stable in its composition and use, which is not only semantically divided, but consists entirely of words with free meaning. Phraseological expressions are reproduced as ready units with a constant value and composition. For example: seriously and for a long time (seriously and for a long time), when hell freezes (when the cancer on the mountain whistles).

• Classification of phraseological turnover by composition. One of the most characteristic features of phraseological turnover as a reproducible language unit is the constancy of its composition. Given the nature of the composition of phraseological units (specific features of the words that form them), Shansky singled out two groups of phraseological phrases:

1. Phraseological phrases, formed from words of free use, belonging to the active vocabulary of the modern Russian language. For example, to make a mountain out of molehill, to look for a needle in a haystack.
2.  Phraseological vocabulary with lexical and semantic features, that is, in which there are words of related use, the words are obsolete or with a dialectal meaning. For example, Neither here nor there, butter the boss up.

• Classification of phraseological turnover from the point of view of their expressive-stylistic properties. Shansky identifies the following groups of phraseological turns from the point of view of their expressive-stylistic properties:

1. Interstyle phraseological turns are stable combinations of words. Known and used in all styles of language. Interstyle phraseology does not contain any assessment.
2. Razgovornye household phraseological turnover - a stable combination of words, mostly or exclusively used in oral speech. They have a figurative character and are characterized by an expressive-stylistic coloring (caressing, abusive, ironic, contemptuous, jocular, etc.) Book phraseological turns.
3.  Book phraseological turns are stable combinations of words, mainly or exclusively used in written speech. They differ in the sphere of use (written speech) and
   "Heightened" expressive-stylistic coloring (book, solemn, pathetic, poetic, etc.).
4. Phraseological historicisms are phraseological phrases that come out of active use in connection with the disappearance of the corresponding phenomenon of reality.
5.  Phraseological archaisms are phraseological phrases that come out of active use in connection with the displacement of them by other stable combinations or individual words that are more suitable for expressing the corresponding concepts.

                     6.3 Problems of phraseological units` translation  

The translation of phraseological units is one of the most complex and interesting tasks that are solved within the framework of modern translation theory. Difficulties in translating phraseological units are explained by the complexity of their semantic structure. Phraseological units can be called "microtexts" absorbing various information about what is happening. Phraseological units transmit information, preserving the speaker's inner state and his emotional attitude to the subject of speech.

 Their distinctive feature is the partial or complete inconsistency of the content plan for the expression plan, which determines the specifics of phraseology and influences the choice of methods and methods of translation. The difficulties of an adequate understanding and translation of phraseological units are also due to their imagery and loss of the components of phraseological units of an independent lexical meaning.
When translating, there may be a number of difficulties that can lead to significant distortions in the meaning of translated phraseology. Certain difficulties can cause similarity of phraseology with a free combination.

                    6.4 Ways of phraseology and phraseological units` translation

The first thing that an interpreter must do is to recognize the phraseological units in the text or speech of the original. The next moment that presents the difficulty is the problem of perception and understanding of the correctly recognized phraseological unit.                                                                                                                                      Since phraseological units are characterized by the non-derivability of the value of the whole from the values ​​of their components, word-by-word translation is rarely correct.
           Many researchers in their works and publications paid attention to the problems of translating phraseology into these problems in different ways, recommended various methods of translation.

           Often there are conflicting opinions, since there can not be a single solution, a standard one, for all cases of life, a solution and a variant. Often, even if there is an equivalent phraseological correspondence found by the translator in the dictionary, one has to look for other ways of translation, since this equivalent is not suitable for this context.
The possibilities for achieving a full-fledged translation of phraseological units depend mainly on the relationship between the units of a foreign language and the target language:

• phraseology has in the language of translation an exact, context-independent, full-fledged correspondence, that is, the phraseology of a foreign language is absolutely identical to phraseology in the target language and, accordingly, is translated by an equivalent;
•  phraseology can be translated into the language of translation by one or another correspondence, usually with some deviations from a full translation, that is, the phraseology of a foreign language is only approximately similar to the phraseology in the target language, and it is translated as a variant (analog);
• Phraseologism does not have equivalents or analogues in the translation language, and the variant of its translation can not be found in the dictionary, in this case the phraseology in the language of translation is transmitted by other, not phraseological means.