How did English History Start?

About three thousand years Before Christ people came from the north of Spain to many parts of Europe including the British Isles.

So, those people who lived on the territory of Great Britain in the earliest times were of the Iberian origin. The Iberians used stone weapons and tools. One of the mysterious monuments of prehistoric Britain in Stonehenge. It was constructed before 2000 BC and is a trace of slabs. It is situated in the southern part on England. Why exactly it was built is unknown, but it may have religions and political significance. No one can tell for sure how these large stones were moved or from what places they were brought. Stonehenge is still a mystery to scholars and to all the descendants.

Romans invade Britain

The Roman Empire became extremely strong in 1st century BC. This Empire was the last and greatest civilization of the ancient world. At that time two thousand years ago Celtic people were still living in tribes. And Roman society, of course, was very much different from the Celts in many ways.

Romans first attacked Britain in 55-54 BC under Julius Caesar. But they really conquered Britain in the 1st century Anno Domini, in 43 AD when the Roman Emperor Claudius decided to make Britain part of the Roman Empire. And Britain became one of its numerous provinces. They forced the population to pay tribute.

The Romans kept their armies in Britain. They had the country under control. They drove their barbaric enemies, the Scots to the mountains of Ireland and the Picts to the mountains of the far north. To protect themselves from the attacks of the Picts to the mountains of the far north. To protect themselves from the attacks of the Picts, the Romans built the wall known as Hadrian`s Wall. Hadrian`s Wall (120 kilometers  long and four metres high (see the map, p.20) was built by Emperor Hadrian and is well-known all over the world.

But from the 3rd century the Scots, «the tattooed ones», from the mountains of Ireland and the picts from present-day Scotland began to press Hadrian`s wall.

As for the Britons, the Romans remained in control of Pretony (that is how they called Britain using its Greeco-Roman name) for nearly 400 years.

The Britons (the descendants of the Celts) had given history a famous figure Boadicea. There is a monument to this fearless queen in London opposite Big Ben. It depicts herself driving a was chariot with two daughters lying dead at her feet.

The Anglo-Saxon Conquest of Britain.

The Celts remained independent when the Roman armies left Britain, but it did not last long. Already in the 4th century Britain was raided by the Germanic tribes – the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. The tribes of Angles and Saxons came from the territory of modern Germany and Denmark. All beautiful towns and buildings left by the Romans were destroyed by these barbaric people.

Of all three tribes, the Angles became the strongest. Later two tribes of the Angles and the Saxons united and were called Anglo-Saxons. These Anglo-Saxon people are the ancestors of the English.

They called their speech English and their country – England, that is «the Land of Angles».

The British Celts fought the raiders. But they took houses, fields and cattle from the Britons. So the Britons had to go to the mountains in the far West and settle there. The Saxons called place «Weallas» or «Wales» now. Other Celts were driven into the lands in the North which became known as Scotland. So, Wales and the highlands of Scotland are inhabited by the oldest Scots called today «the Celtic fringe of the island».

Anglo-Saxons founded 10 separate kingdoms, the most powerful or which were Wessex, Sussex, Essex, Kent, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. These seven are known as heptarchy and they are now some of the counties of GB.

Danish Invaders in England.

Vikings of the British Isles.  

Since Anglo-Saxons settled in Britain their way of life had changed greatly. The Danes, on the contrary, were still a pagan people with old gods. And Anglo-Saxons had already forgotten about these gods.

At the end of the 8th century the Danes did the same what the Anglo-Saxons did four centuries earlier. The Danes began to attack Britain, coming in 3 or 4 ships.

The main aim of their attacks was to plunder the British coasts as well as the central part of the country.  

English kingdoms could not protect themselves because they did not have either a regular army or a fleet. No coastguards watched the coasts. That is why the Danish raids were successful and they came when nobody expected it.

The situation with roads in England was even worse. Moreover, there were deep forests and swamps all around.

If they needed to send a messenger to the king, first they needed to reach a settlement from where they could do it. It took several weeks.

The Danes returned many times. But after many battles, they finally took the crown from the English and became the masters for 24 years.

The area that the Danes conquered was called «Danelaw», and ransom (money) that the British paid to them was called «Danegeld».

During the 8th and 9th centuries there were also Scandinavian invaders who wanted to conquer Britain. They were the Vikings. In 789 the Vikings began to attack the British Isles. They made York the capital of their kingdom. The Vikings brought their language, traditions, art and build towns in England. The English got rid of the Vikings only in the 10th century.

The Norman conquest of England.

To make it clear we should remember: before the Normans, there were four different peoples who invaded England. They were:

• the Celts (the 6th century BC)
• the Romans (the 1st century AD)
• the Anglo-Saxons (the 5th century)
• the Vikings (the end of the 8th century)

The Norman Conquest was the fifth invasion. And it so well-known because it was the last invasion of Britain.

In the 11th century the Normans came to England from Normandy. They were Norsemen who had already settled in the northern part of France. This means that the Normans adopted the French language, French manners, customs and way of life, because they lived among French people.

On October 14th, 1066, King William (Duke of Normandy) defeated the army of the English King Harold in the Battle or Hastings.

No matter how hard the people or England tried to defend their country, the Normans were many poor English people their own serfs. Besides this they burnt houses and killed them.

When William, Duke of Normandy, was crowned, he became the King of England. He settled in London and was called William the Conqueror.

 For 500 years the Normans were masters of Britain.

The British Monarch.

The British monarchy in this country has been for many centuries and it is known as a constitutional monarchy. Under the British Constitutions the Monarch remains the head of the state but the power of Her Majesty the Queen of the UK is limited by the British Parliament. That is why they often say that the monarch in this country reigns but does not rule.

Although the British sovereign no longer has a political or executive role, he or she continues to play an important part in the life of the nation.

As the head of state, the Queen fulfils different state duties which have developed over a thousand years of history. She takes part in a number of special royal occasions every year.

First of all, it is, of course, the official birthday of the Monarch. It is remarkable that there is one queen in the UK, but she has two birthdays. The queen celebrates her actual birthday on April 21st, which is spend privately at Windsor’s with friends and family. She also celebrates her official birthday on either the first or the second, and sometimes the third, Saturday in June.

The Queen turned 80 on April 21st, 2006, and celebrated her official birthday on June 17th, 2006.

The official birthday is always marked in the same way with the Trooping of the Colour ceremony and a fly-past over Buckingham Palace. In addition to this, the queens birthday honours List is announced, the Union Flag is flown from government buildings and gun salutes are fired at noon.  

The British Government

The legislative branch is in the hands of the Queen and Parliament. The executive branch is represented by the Government – the Cabinet headed by Prime Minister.

Her Majesty’s government governs in the name of the queen. The  legislative and the executive branches are combined by the queen. In fact, the Parliament is controlled by the executive branch, as all the bills pass to the Parliament by the decision of the majority party.

Judicial system is represented by courts. So there is practically no separation of powers. The majority party has the real power in the country.

At the end of the election the Queen appoints the Prime Minister (PM). Normally the leader of the party who wins the election becomes the PM.

The office of the Prime Minister was introduced in 1720. The first PM Robert Walpole.

The PM chooses about 20 Members of Parliaments from his or her party it become the Cabinet of Ministers, they are called the Secretaries of State. The Ministers are almost always the members of the Commons, also a few are Lords. Cabinet meetings are held in private while the Parliament in sitting.

The British Parliament is of great significance in the political life of the country. It consists of two Houses: the House of Commons and the House of Lords.

Political Parties

The system of political parties  in the UK appeared in the 17th century. At first, there were two parties – Tory and Wings. The word «Tory» means «an Irish robber». A «Whig» was Scottish preacher who could preach moralising sermons for several hours. Now the main British political parties are:

• the Conservative Party
• the Labour Party
• the Party of Liberal Democrats.

Since 1945 the British Government is constantly represented by two political parties: Conservative and Labour.

In 1988 the Liberal Party made an alliance with Social Democrats and the Party of Liberal Democrats was formed.

The proportional representation system in the UK means that all political parties, small and large, and represented in the government according to the proportion of votes they receive.

The UK does not celebrate one particular national holiday. The four nations were once separate. Only centuries of bloody struggles brought them together.

England began to exist as a unified entity since the 10th century. It has always been the most powerful of all the four and tried to take control over Wales, Scotland and Ireland.

Wales was united to England in 1536 and got its status of principality. Now the eldest son of the Monarch is given the title «Prince of Wales».

In 1707 Scotland was forcefully joined the UK after a long struggle for in independence. The whole country became known as GB.

As for Northern Ireland, first the whole Ireland was joined to GB in 1801. But the union lasted for only 120 years and in 1922 southern part of Ireland separated and the independent Republic of Ireland (or Eire) was formed. Since then six northern Irish counties under the name of northern Ireland still remain the part of the UK.

When somebody says England, what famous things first come to your mind?

Of course, these might be London, Big Ben, Stonehenge, William Shakespeare, red double-decker buses, black taxi cabs, red postboxes and telephone boxes, tea, fish and chips, the Beatles, legend of Pobin Hood, Wimbledon and, probably, David Beckham.

The territory of England is famous fir the oldest British settlements. Traces of those times can be found in the south of the England in the form of ancient monuments like Stonehenge.

Stonehenge is an enormous stone structure. The largest stones in this construction are 50 tones when smallest weigh 5 tons. Ancient people began constructing Stonehenge thousands of years ago, and many generations of them took part in it.

William Shakespeare was a great playwright and a literary master of poetry. He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon, England.

Wimbledon is the oldest of all major tennis tournaments. It started in 1877 in a small club and had only 22 male participants. Since 1905, for a professional tennis player, winning Wimbledon is the pinnacle of their career.

1960s marked the beginning of a culture phenomenon known as the Beatlemania.

The Beatles is an English rock`n`roll band from Liverpool. Its members were John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. These four men were born into working class to become the founding fathers of rock music. Not only their music was so popular, they also became trendsetters for harestyles and clothes. Some of their most popular songs are «Yesterday», «Let it Be», «Michelle».

England is also famous for an outstanding figure from remote past – Queen Boadicea. This lady was a real warrior and is remembered for her courage. She fought against the Romans to keep England free. There is a bronze statue of her riding high in her chariot on the Thames embankment next to the Houses of  Parliament in London. The Thames embankment next to the Houses of Parliament in London.

The red rose is the national symbol or the emblem of England. Every nation ha its own Patron Saint who in times of great trouble is called upon to help save the country from its enemies. St. George’s is Patron Saint of England. St. George Day is celebrated on April 23rd and his flag, St. George’s cross, which is the national flag of England is flown all over England.

The traditional viev of the English.

Almost every nation has some kind of a reputation. As for the English, foreigners often picture a typical Englishman wearing a bowler hat and clothes made of tweed or cheviot, smoking a pipe, drinking tea or striding across the open countryside with his dog. But this is a picture of aristocratic Englishman in the past and it is not so any longer. English people like reading a lot, especially newspapers-talking about the weather, going to a pub, discussing news and drinking beer there. They also like to spend time in a club. The membership itself is attractive for them, because it provides the so-called sense of belonging. English people are considered to be cold, reserved and rather haughty people. They rarely shake hands. They also seldom embrace one another. Their reserved character is usually described by the idiom "to keep a stiff upper lip".

 The traditional love of the English for their homes is known all over the world. Old sayings like "Home is a castle" and "There is no place like a home" reflect the inner nature of a real Englishman who cannot imagine his life without a lawn in front of his house or a small garden behind it and a fireplace inside the house. The English are a nation of stay-at-homes. If they have spare time, they prefer to spend it at home with their families. And it is true that Englishmen prefer to live in the house of their own. But nowadays more and more flats are built and fewer detached and semi-detached houses. Sunday is a very quiet day. It has been the law for about three hundred years that all the theatres are closed on Sundays. Some shops are also closed. People prefer to get out of town on their week-ends. The remarkable politeness is one of the most striking features of the English. They are never tired of saying "Thank you" and "Sorry". The English take everything with exquisite sense of humor. They can be easily offended if you say they do not have it. It is well known all over the world that the English do not like noisy behavior. Nobody rushes for seats in buses or trains. Many of the world's famous sports began in England, including cricket, football, lawn tennis and rugby.

Scotland

Scotland is a beautiful country with dramatic mountains, lochs and many offshore islands. The Cheviot Hills is a natural boundary between England and Scotland. This part of the UK is divided into three regions: Lowlands, Highlands and Southern Upland. Scotland is not densely populated. Most part of the Scottish population lives in Lowlands. Scotland's biggest city, Glasgow, is situated on the bank of the river Clyde. Though this city is the biggest port and the most industrially developed, still it is not the capital. Edinburgh has been the capital of Scotland since the 15th century. It is known as "the Athens of the North" and is one of the United Kingdom's nicest cities. There is the Palace of Holyrood House in Edinburgh, the Queen's official residence in Scotland. In the Highlands the Scots speak English with their own accent. Besides English they also speak Gaelic, the ancient Scottish language. Many Scottish surnames start with Mac or Mc (e. g. MacDonald, McCalister). "Mac" means "son of". MacDonald and Campbell were once two main clans. Highland region is famous for the clan system, which was the basis of the Highland life in the early days. The word "clan" comes from the Gaelic and means "children" and clan's members were united by kinship from the common ancestor. Each clan had its own tartan. Though tartan was worn in other parts of Scotland, it was in the Highlands, where it became the symbol of clan kinship. Tartan was a kind of checked cloth and was worn by both men and women. But the kilt (a kind of skirt made of tartan) was worn only by men. Even though the clan system has lost its power it had over the years, people still wear the tartan of their clan, either a tie or a kilt to proclaim their pride in their origin. The Great Glen in the Scottish Highlands is a valley, which contains three famous lochs: Lochy, Oich and Ness. The most famous of these is Loch Ness. It is deeper than the North Sea and is very long and very, very narrow and has never been known to freeze. Some people believe that a large monster lives in it. There are many stories about this water monster Nessie. Year after year thousands of tourists come to Loch Ness, put up their tents and watch the lake in the hope to see the monster. Since then, Nessie has been seen many times but has never harmed anyone. Interest in Nessie became great and over the years several scientific investigations have taken place. Scotland is known for its so-called Highland Games. During these games different competitions are held. At the beginning of the games, people march to the game place and the pipers play the bagpipes. There is an interesting custom in Scotland. It is the world's biggest New Year's Eve party, which takes place for several days. At the end of each year at midnight people together sing the old song of Robert Burns "Auld Lang Syne" what means "For old times' sake". An old belief says that if the first person who enters the Scottish house after the beginning of a new year is a dark-haired man with a piece of coal, all the members of this family will have good luck. St. Andrew is the Saint Patron of Scotland. St. Andrew's cross is a "saltire" [səl'taiə], or X-shaped cross. His cross, in white on a blue background, remains the pride symbol of Scotland today and forms a central component of the Flag of the United Kingdom. St. Andrew's Day is on November 30th. Scotland is associated with the names of such writers and poetsas Walter Scott, Robert Louis Stevenson and Robert Burns. Scotland is also traditionally regarded as the home of golf. The thistle is the national emblem of Scotland.

Wales

The Welsh people call their country Cymru. Wales is the land of rocks, mountains and valleys. There is a region in the high Cumbrian Mountains called Snowdonia. Its scenery is the pride of Wales. Snowdonia is named after the highest peak of these mountains — Snowdon at 1,085 metres above sea level. The largest cities in the south of Wales are Cardiff, Swansea and Newport. The greatest concentration of people lives in these cities. Cardiff is the principality's capital and the main seaport and Swansea is its industrial centre. Cardiff has been the capital since 1955. The largest town in the north of Wales is Wrexham. The Welsh language is spoken widely, especially in the north of the country. It is one of the Celtic languages. It is still the first language for many people. Wales is often called "the land of song". The Welsh people, especially in rural ares are fond of poetry, singing folk songs and playing the harp. There are a lot of choirs in Wales. The Welsh are great storytellers. You will hear tales of King Arthur and Merlin the Magician, of kingdoms lost beneath the sea and battles between dragons, of haunted castles and knightly deeds. Each of the major periods of history has left its mark on Wales, some more attractive than the others. Wales is "the land of castles". And the Normans were the first to build castles here.Wales is famous for Eisteddfod [ai'steðvɔd]. It is the largest and oldest festival of Welsh culture, which is held every year in different areas of Wales. "Eisteddfod" literally means "a sitting" ("eistedd" in Welsh is "to sit"), perhaps a reference to the hand-carved chair traditionally awarded to the best poet or musician in the ceremony "the Crowning of the Bard". Eisteddfod is actually an association of poets, writers, musicians, artists and individuals who have made a significant and distinguished contribution to the Welsh language, literature, and culture. Competitions of bards and singers take place during Eisteddfod. Its members are known as druids who wear long robes. Their leader is always a poet. The colour of their costumes — white, blue or green — is indicative of their various ranks. St. David is the Patron Saint of Wales. March 1st is St. David's Day, the national day of Wales and has been celebrated as such since the 12th century. Wales has two national symbols — the daffodil and the leek. The proud and ancient battle banner of the Welsh is called the Red Dragon and consists of a red dragon on a green and white background.

London is the capital city of England and of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Today it is one of the world's most important financial and business centres and one of the largest cities in the world. London is situated on the river Thames, which is suitable for navigation all the year round. London is a cosmopolitan city. People of different races and nationalities, cultures and religions live there. It is quite natural that over 300 different languages are spoken here. London itself and its suburbs make up Greater London and its population is about 11 million people. Greater London territory covers an area of 1865 square kilometres and is twice as big as the territory of New York though its population is almost twice smaller. The size of the city impresses even those people who were informed that the city is really big. A great number of places of interest attract attention of tourists from all over the world. London is an international transport point with five international airports (Heathrow is the main one) and a large port. Residents of London are reffered to as Londoners.

Some facts from the history of London

London is an ancient city. It was founded more than twenty centuries ago. When the Romans began invading the country it was a small village. The Romans built London, which they called Londinium. It was a large and rich city with clean streets, beautiful palaces, shops and villas. Nowadays, when the Queen makes ceremonial visits to the City, she stops at Temple Bar Memorial (it used to be the Temple Bar Gates that showed the boundary of the City at Westminster side) to receive the right of entry from the Lord Mayor. This memorial is crowned with the Griffins that guard the City of London. In the 5th century the Romans left Britain, but other invaders came to the British shores. They almost ruined the city and it remained in this poor state for almost 400 years. Only in the 9th century the Saxon kings began to rebuild the city. They started building of Westminster Abbey. In the 17th century London suffered two awful tragedies, the Great Plague in 1665 and the Great Fire in 1666. The Great Fire happened through carelessness of a young baker who left a small bundle of wood near a very hot oven. In medieval City of London the buildings were wooden. The houses were burning like paper. In a few hours this fire destroyed 3,000 houses and at least 97 churches. Fortunately, the wind soon stopped and then heavy rain fell. Thus. London was saved. In order to commemorate this terrible catastrophy the Londoners erected a monument. It is now called simply the Monument.

Four Main Parts of London

London consists of four parts which differ from one another:

— the City 

— Westminster area (or the City of Westminster)

— the West End 

— the East End 

The City of London known as "the City" and the City of Westminster are the most ancient parts of it. These parts seem to belong to different towns and epochs. The City of London is the birthplace of London. It was a place of the original Roman settlement and later commercial and trading centre. Meanwhile. Westminster was outside London's walls and became England's administrative capital after its transfer from Winchester in the 11th century. When the first English Parliament was called here in the 13th century the Westminster area was a separate City of Westminster. So, London has no obvious centre, because it grew out of two formerly distinct cities. Central London includes the West End. the City of Westminster and the City. This area is roughly bounded by the Underground Circle Line (the British call their underground "the tube). They say, the City is "the money of London", the West End is "the goods of London". the East End is "the hands of London".

The City

The City is often called the commercial and business heart of London. This is the area with lots of banks and offices. Every morning there are many clerks in suits hurrying to their offices. Very few people live there. Only some five thousand people live permanently in the City today, but nearly a million works there. In the day-time the streets of the city are crowded but late at night they are deserted. It is known as "the Square Mile" (its total area is 2.59 sq km = 1 sq mile). The Royal Exchange, the Stock Exchange. Mansion House (official residence of the Lord Mayor), the Central Criminal Court ("The Old Bailey") and the Bank of England are in the City. In front of the buildings of the Bank there is a monument to the Duke of Wellington, who defeated Napoleon in the battle of Waterloo and brought fame and glory to England. In the centre of the City there is the Tower of London and St. Paul's Cathedral. The Tower of London is one of the most ancient buildings in London with very long history. For over 900 years the Tower has been a fortress and a royal palace, a prison and a place for execution, an arsenal, royal mint, menagerie and a safe for Crown Jewels. Now it is a museum. The Tower of London had never had a chance to serve as a fortress and to resist an enemy's attack. The Tower does not belong to the City historically. This fortress was built by William the Conqueror at the end of the 11th century. He built it right at the Gates of the City to keep the unruly Londoners in fear. Later the kings began to use it as a royal residence. They used to spend a night before coronation there. In the centre of the Tower of London there is the famous White Tower which is the most ancient part of the Tower and the oldest building of London. William the Conqueror built it right away after his successful invasion. It is not white of course, it became dark with age. Its walls are four metres thick and now this building is a museum. The Tower is also known as Bloody Tower because it once became a state prison and a place for executions for the greatest political leaders of the country. Among them were Sir Thomas More — great scientist was beheaded there. Sir Walter Raleigh — the famous sea captain spent more than twelve years in its walls. Lady Jane Grey, who was the Queen of England for several days, was also kept here. Only the ravens of the Tower remind of those dark years. Ravens have lived at the Tower of London for hundreds of years. There are six of them, according to the order of King Charles II. The state donates the money to feed the birds. All the visitors must be careful as the ravens are not tame and they do bite. The ravens are taken particular care of because there is a legend that Great Britain will keep its might and glory until the ravens leave the Tower. If the ravens disappear. Great Britain will face a great tragedy. The Tower is guarded by the Yeomen Warders, who are often called "Beefeaters". They are dressed in traditional medieval clothes of Tudor times. They work as guides and tell this story to the visitors. Old traditions and ceremonies are kept up in the Tower of London. One of them is the Ceremony of the Keys. Every night for the last 700 years at 21.53 the Tower has been locked up in the Ceremony of the Keys. The chief Yeoman Warder locks various doors ceremonially. Not far from the Tower of London there is Tower Bridge — a masterpiece of engineering skill. Tower Bridge was built at the end of the 19th century to match the medieval style of the fortress. This bridge is opened to let big ocean ships move up the Thames from the ocean. The territory between the Tower and the bridge is called the Pool for that reason. St. Paul's Cathedral is in the centre of London and is considered to be an architectural masterpiece. After the Great Fire the City had to be built again. The commission of six architects was organized for the rebuilding and Sir Christopher Wren was the most talented of them. This architect drew a plan which greatly determined the look of today's London though it was not realized in every detail. It was forbidden to build wooden houses in the City of London. St. Paul's Cathedral was the greatest work of Sir Christopher Wren. It is one of the largest churches in the world. Sir Wren was building the Cathedral for 35 years, completed it in 1711, and his aim was to build a church that could rival the great St. Peter Basilica in Rome. St. Paul was built of white stone as well as many other buildings in the City of London. But smoke and soot made the stones black and only the columns and edges were washed by the rain and remained white. That is how the building got its peculiar white-and-black look. On top of St. Paul's Cathedral is a high dome, which contains the Whispering Gallery, where whisper can be heard at a great distance. Fleet street is famous all over the world as the centre of British news services.

Barbican is a district of the City of London. Nowadays Barbican is one of the most beautiful districts of London. It is also famous for the Barbican Centre. The Barbican Centre is an enormous complex which contains two theatres (the Royal Shakespeare Company and the London Symphony Orchestra), an art gallery, three cinemas, two restaurants and two exhibition halls.

The City of Westminster

Westminster area is also called the City of Westminster. It is the most important part of London, where Parliament and most government offices are located. Westminster Abbey is regarded as the centre of this area. They say. the City was founded here near the monastery as far back as the 7th century. In the 11th century King Edward the Confessor decided to build a great abbey church there. It was a monastery for a long time. William the Conqueror was crowned there and since then many kings and queens of England followed this tradition. There is the ancient Coronation Chair beneath which there is the Stone of Scone (the ancient Scottish Coronation Throne that was brought to England by King Edward I as a sign of defeat of Scotland. Many English kings and queens and other famous statesmen, writers, scientists are buried in Westminster Abbey. Among them there are two queens rivals Elizabeth I Tudor and Mary Stuart. Oliver Cromwell. Charles Dickens. Rudyard Kipling, Isaac Newton and Charles Darwin. It is famous for the Poet's Corner, where most popular writers (Kipling. Chaucer, Hardy, Dickens), poets and musicians are buried. Opposite Westminster Abbey there are the Houses of Parliament, which are often called the Palace of Westminster (or Westminster Palace). Westminster Palace was built in medieval days. It was a place of royal dwelling as early as the 11th century, which later became the meeting place of Parliament. It was destroyed many times by fire, and the foundation stone of the new Houses of Parliament was laid in 1840. It is a beautiful building with two towers. In the north part of the Houses there is Victoria Tower. It is 104 metres high and the national flag is hoisted on its top when the Parliament is sitting. In the southern part of the building there is its clock tower, St. Stephen's Tower with the famous Big Ben. Parliament Square in front of the Palace of Westminster is famous for the monuments to great British statesmen. There is a monument to Oliver Cromwell and a monument to Winston Churchill. Whitehall, the governmental street, begins from Parliament Square. Most British ministries like the Admiralty and official residences are situated here. The British Government itself is often called Whitehall. Downing Street is very small and is usually associated with Whitehall. Downing Street (House № 10) is the official residence of British prime ministers. Down the Whitehall Street there is not less popular street called the Mall, the straightest and the broadest street in the central part of London. Buckingham Palace (the Palace) is the official London residence of the Queen and the Royal family. When the Queen is at the residence the flag is flying on top of Buckingham Palace. It was a country residence of the Duke of Buckingham. But in the 19th century it was rebuilt for King George. The square in front of the Palace is decorated with Victoria Memorial built in 1911.

Trafalgar Square is the geographical centre of the British capital. The square was named "Trafalgar" to commemorate Admiral Nelson's victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. There is the monument in the centre of the square known as Nelson's Column. Around the monument there are four bronze bar-reliefs, representing scenes of Nelson's life and death. The statue is guarded at the base by four bronze lions. Nelson was killed in the battle but the victory was won. The English consider Admiral Nelson to be a national hero for his victory in the war against Napoleon. The National Gallery (a great picture museum) is situated on Trafalgar Square. It contains a wonderful collection of works from the British, French, Italian, Dutch and Spanish schools, which existed between the 13th and the 19th centuries. Scotland Yard is the name of the police headquarters and the police itself. Fleet Street is associated with British newspapers and is located between Westminster and the City.

London. The West End

The West End it is not far from the City and is a part of Westminster. Life never stops in the streets and squares here. The West End is a symbol of wealth and luxury. The best hotels, the most expensive restaurants, clubs, theatres, cinemas, casinos, shops and supermarkets are located here. It is also full of museums and art galleries. The parks are probably the main attraction of the West End. They occupy the most part of its territory. They say, if gardens and parks are "lungs" of a city, Londoners must have good health. There are many lawns in the parks where people lie or sit about. Hyde Park is the largest and the most popular of the London parks. This park is famous for its Speaker's Corner which attracts a lot of tourists. Here people of different beliefs and persuasions can say what they want for those who want to hear it. Marble Arch is also here. It was built to commemorate Lord Wellington's victory over Napoleon in the battle of Waterloo. Next to Hyde Park there is the famous luxury department store which is called Harrods. Kensington Gardens is also one of the biggest parks. St. James's Park is one of the royal parks. Here you can see pelicans called "Royal Pelicans". It is located right next to Buckingham Palace. The Regent's Park is famous for London Zoo which is considered to be one of the biggest zoos in the world. Piccadilly Circus is the heart of the West End and is the centre of entertainment. It is a famous square which is a meeting point of six streets. It is called "circus" because of its shape. In the middle of Piccadilly Circus there is a graceful statue of Eros. Piccadilly Circus is beautiful with enormous advertisments. Soho is one of the districts located in the West End (between Regent Street and Charring Cross). The legend goes that in old days there were green fields in this place which were good for fox-hunting. When a hunter saw a fox, he cried to the dogs "So-ho!" and they rushed after the fox. Now the district of Soho is famous for its remarkable restaurants, pubs and night clubs. There are some other famous streets. Harley Street is the street where the highest paid doctors live. Regent Street is best for shopping. Charring Cross is a famous street of bookstores. Oxford Street is considered to be the busiest street in London. The West End is also very popular for its museums. The British Museum is the best-known national museum of antiquities and ethnography. It is famous for its library and reading halls. The Tate Picture Gallery on Millbank is another famous museum. It is the redeveloped bankside Power Station. Its collection contains pictures by English masters of the 19th century and the works of West European classics and modern artists (Picasso, Monet and Warhol). The old district of Covent Garden is also a museum and a great fair at the same time. It is also a theatre district. The famous Royal Opera House (home of both Royal Ballet and Royal Opera) is here but you can see all kinds of theatrical performances right in the squares of the district. A short distance to the north there is Baker Street. It is the location of Madame Tussaud's Museum, which is famous for its collection of waxworks. The Sherlock Holmes Museum at 221B Baker Street contains a representation of the fictional detective's apartment. Three of London's largest museums — the Victoria & Albert, Science and Natural History, and the Royal Albert Hall are also here. Another new attraction in the area is the London Eye — a ferris wheel, which at 137 metres is the world's tallest one, offering good views from its enclosed capsules.

London. The East End

The East End used to be a purely working district where working-class families lived. We still can find a great number of factories, workshops and docks there. But now the docks are being renovated. For example, St. Katharine's Dock, close to Tower Bridge, is now an attractive marina surrounded by wine bars and restaurants. The East End is in many ways the "real" London. Those who live in the East End are often called Cockneys, i. e. true Londoners. They have got their own peculiar dialect and accent. The Thames is a natural boundary between the West End and the East End of London. Anyone visiting London for the first time and walking along the Thames Embankment may be surprised to see an original Egyptian obelisk known as Cleopatra's Needle. It actually has little to do with Cleopatra at all. It has this name because it was brought to London from Alexandria, the royal city of Cleopatra. On the south bank of the river Thames there is the South Bank Arts Centre which comprises the Royal National Theatre and the Royal Festival Hall as well as MOMI (the Museum of the Moving Image), which traces the story of film and TV technology. Nearby is Queen Victoria Theatre (the Old Vic), one of London's best known theatres. It is one of the leading theatres of the capital.

The National Flag of the UK

The national flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the most obvious symbol of the United Kingdom. It is called the Union Jack. "Jack" is an old word which means "sailor". It explaines the name of the flag. King James Ш (1566-1622) ordered the Union Flag to be flown on the main mast of all British ships, except for the ships of war. So the flag was flown at the front of the ships. Union Jack is a mixture of several overlaid flags. It combines three flags representing England, Scotland and Ireland. These flags are the crosses of the Patron Saint of England (St. George's Cross — red cross on a white ground), the flag of the Patron Saint of Scotland (St. Andrew's Cross — white diagonal cross on a blue ground) and the flag of the Patron Saint of Nothern Ireland (St. Patrick's Cross — red diagonal on a white ground). St. David of Wales is not represented in the flag probably because Wales is a principality, not a kingdom.

The National Anthem of the UK

People all over the world know the first line of the national anthem of Great Britain which is called "God Save the Queen". It was adopted after the War with Napoleon.

        God save our gracious Queen

        Long Hue our noble Queen

        God save the Queen!

        Send her victorious

        Happy and glorious

        Long to reign over us

        God save the Queen!

The National Royal Symbols. Titles and Honours

The main National Royal symbol is the Royal Coat of Arms, which identifies the person who is the Head of State. The royal Coat of Arms reflects the history of the Monarchy and of the country, because it comprises the various Royal emblems of different parts of the United Kingdom. In the centre of the emblem a heraldic shield is situated. It is divided into four parts: three gold leopards or lions on a red ground is the English The British Royal Coat of Anns emblem (left upper part & right lower part), a red lion on a gold ground is the Scottish emblem (right upper part), yellow harp on a blue ground is the Irish emblem (left lower part). The shield is supported by two Royal Beasts — the Lion with the crown on the left and the Unicorn on the right. The Lion represents pride, bravery, valour. It is also a symbol of power and royalty. The unicorn is a mythical animal. It has appeared at the British and the Scottish coats of arms and is the symbol of purity. They are surmounted by the Royal crown. King James VI of Scotland brought one of the unicorns and changed the red draqon which earlier represented Wales on the coat of arms. Around the shield there is a garter with the motto of the Royal family "Honi soit qui mal у pense" (French for "Evil to him who evil thinks"), which symbolises the Order of the Garter, an ancient order of chivalry of which the Queen is Sovereign. Below the shield there is the motto of the Monarch which is also in French "Dieu et mon droit" ("God and my right"). Henry VI began to use it as the motto of the British monarch in the 15th century. The plant symbols of the United Kingdom — the rose, the thistle and the shamrock — are often displayed beneath the shield. The system of titles and honours of the UK includes several grades. The highest honour is peerage which is historically hereditary, and since 1959 life peerage is given. The five grades of nobility are Duke / Duchess (addressed to as Your Grace), Marquis / Marchioness (addressed to as My Lord / My Lady), Earl / Countess (addressed to as My Lord / My Lady), Viscount / Viscountess, Baron / Baroness.

The National Symbol of England

The red rose is the symbol of England. It comes from the history of the country. This symbol goes back to the War of the Roses, which was the war within the country. In the 15th century two Houses were struggling for the English throne — the Lancastrians and the Yorkists. Red rose was the emblem of the Lancastrians and the white rose was that of the Yorkists. Their rival ended when King Henry VII, the Lancastrian, married Princess Elizabeth, the daughter of the Yorkist. Since that time the red rose has become the national emblem of England. An oak is also depicted as the national symbol of the country.

The National Symbol of Scotland

For many centuries the purple thistle has been Scotland's national emblem. There is a legend that explains why it became the Scottish emblem. According to that legend, ancient Scandinavians (the Norsemen) wanted to plunder the land of Scotland and settle there. So, they landed on the east coast of Scotland. The Scots gathered their army to defend the land. They assembled behind the river Tay and made a camp to have rest after a long march. The Scots were sleeping and did not expect the enemies. When the Norsemen decided to attack the Scots, they took their shoes off not to make noise. But one of the Norsemen stepped on a thistle. That sudden and sharp pain made him scream. So the Scots heard this "alarm" and put the Norsemen to fight. That is how the thistle became the emblem of Scotland.

The National Symbol of Wales

Wales has got two national symbols. These are the daffodil and the leek. They are both connected to the Patron Saint of Wales. According to the legend, during a battle against the Saxons, St. David advised his soldiers to wear leeks in their hats so that they could easily be distinguished from their enemies. Another link between the leek and St. David is the belief that he had to live on bread and wild leek for several years. However, today each year on St. David's Day the leek is worn in the cap badges of every soldier in every Welsh regiment. But outside the army, many other Welsh people have substituted the leek by the daffodil, perhaps because it looks more attractive and certainly smells a lot better. The daffodil is also associated with St. David's Day, due to the fact that it breaks into blossom on that day. Interesting to note that one of the many Welsh names for a daffodil is "Cenhinen Bedr" which means "Peter's leek".

The National Emblem of Northern Ireland

The shamrock is the symbol of Northern Ireland. It is also connected to St. Patric, Patron Saint of Ireland. Saint Patrick is most famous for bringing Christianity to Ireland. The legend tells how he used the shamrock, a kind of a white clover with three leaves to explain the Holy Trinity. Apparently, he used it to show how the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit could all exist as separate elements of the same entity. The red hand is also a symbol of Nothern Ireland. The Red Hand is in its flag. According to the myth, there was time when the heir to the throne of Ireland was undecided. And they decided to hold a boat-race and the winner (the first who would reach the shore of Ulster) would be the king. One competitor so much desired the country that when he saw that he was loosing the race, he cut his hand, threw it to the shore and won. The hand is most likely red because it was covered with blood.

Holidays in the UK

In Great Britain there are public holidays that are called "bank holidays".

New Year's Eve (December 31st) is more special for Scottish people, who celebrate it with their families. They sit the Old Year out and the New Year in. At midnight Scottish people hold their hands in a large circle and sing the song "Auld lang syne" by Robert Burns. That is how they celebrate the coming of a new year. But it does not mean that New Year's Eve is not so popular throughout the country. People decorate their houses with bouquets of mistletoe. Friday before Easter is called "Good Friday". People usually make special buns which are marked with a cross on top. On this day the Church marks Jesus Christ's death. Easter Monday is the first Monday after Easter Day. May Day Bank Holiday is celebrated on the first Monday after May Day (May 1st). People celebrate the coming of spring. They also select the most beautiful girl on this day, who becomes May Queen. Sometimes May poles are constructed with long coloured ribbons and children dance around these poles holding the ends of these ribbons. Spring Bank Holiday is marked on the last Monday in May. August Bank Holiday is the last Monday in August. British people usually go on picnics on spring and summer bank holidays. The most popular bank holiday is Christmas Day. It is celebrated on December 25th. Christmas symbolizes the birth of Jesus Christ. On this day many people go to Churches, get Christmas presents and make a traditional Christmas dinner (roast turkey and pudding). On this day children wait for a special person who will come down the chimney during the night and will bring them presents. It is Father Christmas. However, Santa Claus is used synonymously with Father Christmas. Children usually hang long socks or stocks on their beds and hope that Father Christmas will put his presents in them. Christmas trees are set in the living-rooms and are decorated with toys by children. Boxing Day is celebrated on December 26th. It comes straight away after Christmas Day. This is an old tradition, when in old times rich people used to give their servants money or "Christmas boxes". Now it is the day when people simply have rest or visit their friends. St. Valentine's Day is celebrated on February 14th. On this day people send Valentine cards and get presents and "valentines" from their sweethearts. A valentine is a colourful card with tender love words composed by the sender. It is a kind of a love-token. Valentine cards are usually not signed. Those who get them must guess who the sender is. Shrove Tuesday is the last day when you can eat and do everything before the fasting of Lent. It also has a popular name "Pancake Day" because many people traditionally eat pancakes on this day. Christians usually go to the church and confess their sins to a priest on Shrove Tuesday. Mothering Sunday or Mother's Day is celebrated on the fourth Sunday in Lent in March. On this day mothers get presents from their sons and daughters. And all children despite their age return to their homes. On April Fool's Day people play jokes and tricks on each other. In June there is Father's Day. On this day fathers get gift cards and a lot of attention from their children. Halloween is a holiday that is on October 31st. The most memorable symbol connected to this holiday is a lantern made of a pumpkin. A pumpkin is cut like a face and a candle is put inside of it. So it looks like a face with burning eyes. Usually people dress in colourful costumes of witches and ghosts and go to fancy dress parties. Children go from one house to another and say: "Trick or treat". If people do not refuse to give them something they sing. If they do refise children play tricks. Halloween is on the eve of All Saints' Day. The word "Halloween" means "holy evening". The tradition of Halloween goes back with its roots to a time when people believed in evil spirits. Guy Fawkes Night is celebrated in the UK on November 5th. This tradition comes from old times when King James I was on the throne. He was a Protestant that is why Roman Catholics did not like him because of the religious differences. In 1605 Roman Catholics made a plan to blow up the Houses of Parliament. They placed barrels with gunpowder under the House of Lords. The man called Guy Fawkes was one of those people. Nevertheless, they did not have a chance to blow up the Parliament because the King discovered their plan, his soldiers found Guy Fawkes and executed him. This happened on November 5th.Since then British people mark this day by burning a dummy made of straw and old clothes on a bonfire. They call this dummy simply "a guy". Alongside public holidays there are not least important holidays celebrated in the UK. They are the patron saint days: St. David's Day on March 1st (in Wales), St. George's Day on April 23d (in England), St. Andrew's Day on November 30th (in Scotland) and St. Patrick's Day on March 17th (in Northern Ireland). The only national holiday from this list is St. Patrick's Day for the Irish.