Для студентов специальности Техническое обслуживание и ремонт автомобильного транспорта

1965. Last Volvo PV rolls off the assembly line

At 3 p.m. on October 20, 1965, the very last PV-series Volvo drives off the assembly line in Lundby, Sweden. The car, a zippy black Sport PV544 with red interior trim, went straight to the Volvo Museum in Gothenburg. PV-series Volvos had been in production, first as the PV444 and then as the PV544, since 1947 and 440,000 sold in all. By the end of its run, the PV was old-fashioned–looking — the company had made very few cosmetic changes in the two decades the car had been on the market — but it remained a good, solid automobile. “Above all,” Road & Track magazine said in 1963, “the Volvo PV544 is such a practical car. Volvo’s most attractive appeal lies in its solidity and its quality in every single respect. There is nothing slapdash or under-dimensioned about any part of the car and that is more than enough to compensate for any perceived lack of glamour

Volvo (the company’s name is Latin for “I roll”) was founded in Gothenburg, Sweden in 1927 and quickly won a reputation for building sturdy, safe cars. After World War II, the company unveiled the PV444 — between 1947 and 1958 it sold more than 200,000 of the diminutive cars — and it introduced the PV544 in August 1958. The two cars were virtually identical — both were slightly humpbacked and dowdy — except that the PV544 had a one-piece windshield in place of the PV444’s divided one, a larger rear window and a bigger flip-out side windows, all of which brightened up the car’s interior considerably. Neither model ever had four doors, right-hand drive or an interior clock.

Despite the cars’ anachronistic appearance, people loved them. A PV Volvo might have looked stodgy, but it did not drive it: it could go from zero to 60 mph in 13 seconds, could cruise comfortably at 70 mph and got 27 miles per gallon on the highway. The PVs were great family cars but they were also powerful, sturdy racers: In 1965, for example, Kenyan brothers Joginder and Jaswant Singh won one of the toughest road races in the world, the 3,000-mile East African Safari rally, in their 1964 PV544. (Among other things, drivers in the safari had to negotiate falling boulders, mud puddles, errant herds of buffalo and giraffes blocking the road.)

Of the 440,000 PVs built, 280,000 stayed in Sweden. Most of the rest were exported to other European countries. In 1966, in place of the PV-series cars, the company introduced the 144 sedan, the car that is the ancestor of the boxy Volvos seen today.

Ferdinand Porsche’s First Car Was Electric

In 1898, more than three decades before founding his namesake company, 22-year-old Ferdinand Porsche designed his first-ever automobile: an electric-powered car officially known as the Egger-Lohner electric vehicle C.2 Phaeton model. Unofficially, it was dubbed P1, after the code the young automobile designer engraved on all the vehicle’s key components. Recently discovered in an Austrian garage, where it remained virtually untouched since 1902, the historic electric car was unveiled with great ceremony at the Porsche museum in Stuttgart.

Born in Maffersdorf, Austria in 1875, Ferdinand Porsche was expected to become a craftsman like his father, a master tinsmith. Instead, he developed a passion for the field of electricity, and went to Vienna in 1893 to apprentice at an electrical engineering firm. He quickly rose in the ranks, becoming head of the company’s testing department. While serving in this position, he met Ludwig Lohner, head of the carriage-manufacturing company Jacob Lohner.

During his travels in the United States, Lohner had become convinced that the age of the horse-and-buggy was ending, and he wanted to start producing electric- and gas-powered vehicles. He thought electric cars would be particularly marketable, as people sought to avoid excessive noise and exhaust fumes.

Lohner commissioned Porsche to come up with an electric drivetrain, as the system that connects a vehicle’s transmission to the drive axels is known. The result, which debuted on the streets of Vienna on June 26, 1898, was the P1. Constructed by Porsche himself, it had a rear-mounted “octagonal electric motor” (so named for the eight-sided design of the motor housing) that was powered by electric “Tudor” batteries. While the motor itself weighed a relatively modest 287 pounds, the batteries alone weighed some 1,100 pounds; the total weight of the vehicle was 2,997 pounds.

Controlled by a 12-speed system (six forward gears, two reverse gears and four gears used for braking), the P1 could reach a top speed of 21 miles (34 km) per hour; a single charge would carry it up to 49 miles. In another innovative touch, the vehicle was also an early convertible of sorts: It could be configured in an open-chassis (phaeton) or coupe style, depending on the season.

In September 1899, Ferdinand Porsche took the P1 to an international motor vehicle exhibition in Berlin, where it represented one of 19 electric vehicle manufacturers among some 120 exhibitors (most of the entrants were gas-powered cars). He drove it himself in a 24-mile road race of electric cars, during which it had to carry four passengers, including the driver.

The challenging course included gradients, an 8.6-km high-speed section and a 7.8-km efficiency test. Porsche and the P1 won the race easily, beating the next-best finisher by 18 minutes.

Meanwhile, technical difficulties kept more than half of the participants from reaching the finish line, while others were not assessed due to their failure to meet the minimum speed requirement. In addition to the speed race, the P1 also won the award for efficiency, recording the lowest energy consumption in urban traffic.

Shortly after the Berlin exhibition, Porsche became the chief designer for Jacob Lohner. In 1900, at the Paris Exposition Universelle, he dazzled international automobile enthusiasts with the Lohner-Porsche, a sportscar fitted with four electric wheel-hub motors that was showcased as the first all-wheel drive passenger vehicle in the world.

Porsche went on to design cars for Austro-Daimler, Daimler-Benz and Steyr before forming his own namesake automobile company in 1931. The Type 356, the first sportscar to bear the Porsche name, was released in 1948.

As for the P1, it was parked in a Vienna warehouse in 1902 and forgotten until recently, when it was discovered virtually untouched. Earlier this week, the restored vehicle was unveiled as the centerpiece of the permanent collection at the Porsche museum in Stuttgart, Germany, which celebrates its fifth anniversary this year.

HERE ARE THE TOP-SELLING CROSSOVERS IN FOUR SIZES, AND WHAT YOU SHOULD BUY INSTEAD

Very small (subcompact) crossover -- Nissan Kicks

The Nissan Kicks is a cute little crossover meant to replace the funky-looking Juke. It sits beneath the Rogue Sport in Nissan’s lineup and is the value proposition costing less than $19,000 for the base model. Its puny 1.6-liter four makes 125 hp, but on the other hand it delivers 31 mpg in the city and 36 mpg on the highway.

What you should get instead -- Volkswagen Golf

The VW Golf hatchback, besides being a perennial all-star in any class, offers more power and torque (125 hp to 147 hp, 114 lb-ft to 187 lb-ft) AND gets better gas mileage on the highway (31/36 to 29/37 mpg). The Golf has more cargo space with the seats folded (53.1 to 53.7 cubic feet) and offers a manual. Your only option on the Kicks is a CVT. The Golf is also way more fun to drive, though it is a bit more expensive ($21,845).

Small (compact) crossover – Toyota Rav4

The Toyota Rav4 jumped a bunch of notches in my book with its latest redesign, which brought its looks in line with the rugged Toyota 4Runner. The base Rav4 LE starts at $26,645 and comes with a 203-hp, 2.5-liter four that returns 26 mpg city and 35 mpg highway in front-wheel-drive models. Stepping up to all-wheel drive will cost you $1,400.

What you should get instead -- Subaru Impreza 5-door

The Subaru Impreza five-door/wagon/hatch is the all-wheel-drive do-anything vehicle. The hatch will swallow, with the seats folded down, 55.3 cubic feet, or enough to hold a couple of minifridges and a set of golf clubs. It only makes 152 hp and 145 lb-ft, a little down from the Rav4, but neither of these vehicles is bought for speed. It beats the Rav4 in mileage by a point on the expressway and two in the city. It has less ground clearance than the Rav4 but starts a few grand cheaper, even in premium trim. It's also offered with a manual transmission.

Medium-size crossover -- Subaru Outback

The Subaru Outback dominates this class, beating the Honda Pilot, Hyundai Santa Fe and Ford Edge by a third in sales in the first six months of 2019, about 90,000 to about 60,000 units moved. Because of the planted and low nature of the Outback, we do like it much more than the average SUV/crossover. Driving dynamics are good, and Subie’s all-wheel-drive system is hard to beat. It also has one of the less-intrusive powertrains with a continuously variable transmission. But here’s our choice.

What you should get instead -- Buick Regal TourX

The Regal TourX starts at about $29,000 while the base Outback is a little cheaper at about $26,600, but you get a much more powerful engine, the same all-wheel drive and a step up in interior quality. The Subaru’s interior isn’t low quality by any means, but the Buick is just a bit softer and a bit nicer, though maybe a bit less rugged. Cargo space is about the same. Gas mileage will suffer a tad -- 21/29 for the Buick and 25/32 in the Subaru. Still, a small price to pay. Like the Outback, the TourX is available with a roof rack but also comes with a standard eight-speed transmission.

Large crossover -- Toyota Highlander

The Toyota Highlander narrowly owns this three-row class over the Ford Explorer and Chevy Traverse. It’s surprisingly offered with a 185-hp four-cylinder returning just 24 mpg on the highway along with a 295-hp V6 that somehow delivers 27 mpg at speed. The Highlander ($31,830) fits seven or eight passengers depending on layout, and if you weren’t an enthusiast, it would be a fine vehicle to transport your extra-large family around. The trouble with picking a replacement for this one is the seating capacity.

What you should buy instead -- Chrysler Pacifica

Get a minivan! If you haven’t heard, like the Autoweek podcasts, they’re good now! The Pacifica is probably the standard bearer with its 3.6-liter V6, making a healthy 287 hp and 262 lb-ft of torque. That’s right near the V6 Highlander’s power. The Pacifica also beats it in highway fuel mileage at 28 mpg. The base L trim ($28,730) is cheap but might be hard to find on dealer lots. The LX ($31,540) with the second row Stow n' Go seats still lands beneath the big Highlander. And before you say something about four-wheel-drive, the Highlander is a front-wheel-drive car that can send power to the rears when necessary. It won’t rock crawl, it won’t sand dune. And neither will the Pacifica. On road, the Pacifica is much more fun to throw around, so, a win-win.

There are hundreds of cars out there, and almost all of them will meet your needs for getting your family from A to B. But you’re an enthusiast, and even if your life demands something like a crossover, there are alternatives. So please check them out before you give up and get a Nissan Rogue anyway, despite our protests.

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A Car - One Piece of the Puzzle of Modern Life

Our life is really fast and it is getting faster and faster every day. And it is impossible to imagine our unpausing life without modern means of transport. The most popular one is undoubtedly a car. A car can get us to almost any place we need. It gives us a wonderful opportunity to visit more places during a day and feel comfortable and safe.

People have always tried to invent something that could help them to travel in the most convenient way. The first attempts to build individual cars date back to 1770s, when cars that ran on steam appeared. Some of them behaved quite well but some did not. And all of them were not very fast and easy to use. Inventors spend many years trying to build cars running on steam, electricity, or gasoline. And by 1890s there were several brands in Europe and the USA that managed to sell cars to those who could afford them. The most popular cars were gasoline cars and by 1910 they became so large and powerful that they allowed travelling long distances in a relative comfort. But those cars were very expensive.

The situation when only rich people had cars was changed by the new American brand and the first affordable car – Ford Model T. From 1915 to 1925 they sold more than 15 million Model Ts, and many farmers, workers and teachers changed their horses to those cars.

The car was a key force for change in many countries all over the world in the twentieth century. It did not only change the way of travelling it changed the total urban and rural looks. Distant places in the country were not isolated anymore and the population of suburbs expanded. Automobiles have changed the total arrangement of our cities.

Nowadays it is impossible to imagine our life without cars. They are convenient, fast and affordable. But these advantages have led to the problem of overbalance of cars in the modern world. Scientists believe that car emissions are the cause of air pollution and the greenhouse effect. More and more cities organize car free areas and stimulate their citizens to use public transport or more ecologically friendly ways of moving around the city. Researches try to find more ecologically friendly engines for cars. We hope in the nearest future we will be able to use cars safely for our planet.

RUSSIAN AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

The automobile industry in our country has been developed since 1916. Before that time Russia had no automobile industry at all, technical schools had no departments to train specialists in automobile engineering. But in the history of the automobile such names as Shamshurenkov, Blinov, Mamin and other Russian experts in mechanics must be re membered.

The first automobile built by Shamshurenkov, a Russian inventor, was put into motion by the pedalling of the driver himself. Blinov designed and constructed tractor driven by steam engine. Mamin was one of the pioneers in Russian internal combustion engines.

Today Russian automobiles are engineered and built in such a manner that they are able to withstand heavy loads for long periods of operation. The modem automobile is much more than a means of riding from one place to another. The passenger's safety and comfort must be considered as much as the car's reliable performance and ability to travel on the highways.

The modern automobile must have a steel body and a steel roof and this roof must be insulated against the summer's heat and winter's (old Ventilation is also of great importance. The comfort and convenience of the driver must be taken into consideration too. The automobile must have a heater with special defrosting devices which insure clear vision to the driver. The automobile must have great power for riding, have dependable clutch and brakes, have good riding qualities, good lights, dependable starting and ignition systems, low fuel consumption, as well as long service life.

Задание 2. Ответьте на вопросы

1. Since what time has the automobile industry been developed in our country?

2. Who are the most famous Russian experts in mechanics?

3. How was the first automobile put into motion?

4. How are Russian automobiles engineered and built today?

The 2020 X1 xDrive28i Is the Pleasant and Plucky Small Crossover Bimmer

For 2020, BMW revised the eight-speed automatic’s gear ratios and added LED fog lights, kidney grilles with presence.

Pouring over the specifications of this little BMW, I found a clear favorite: its length. At just 175.5 inches long, the X1 is actually a smidge shorter than a M240i coupe. And that, more or less, encapsulates the entire attitude of this little Bavarian crossover. Despite being a bit tall and boxy, it’s also agile and amiable, cheerfully going about its job of getting you from point A to B.

It is tall, though. Its roof is more than 5 feet above the ground, which helps avoid any confusion over the X1 being a small sports wagon. You could, however, mistake it for a slightly oversized hatchback. It moves much like one, and the base model is, indeed, front-wheel drive. Get too enthusiastic, however, and another X1 spec rears its ugly head: the 3,713-pound curb weight.

But, no matter, add it all up and you get a roundel-badged starter family ute for the maturing car nerd. The X1 is a vehicle set to handle all the mundane work of adulthood with just enough of that positive response enthusiasts crave. Steering feel falls below Porsche levels, but you get a nice, fat-rimmed wheel, weighted well with no dead spots. Furthermore, the seats support you and feel comfortable. I appreciated the adjustable upper bolsters and squeezed them against my kidneys a touch.

Breaking in a Rebuilt or Built-Up Engine Is All About Bringing Surfaces Together

It takes time, but it'll save you in the long run.

The internal combustion engine may have been man’s greatest creation. It’s powered us across land, seas and skies. And over the past 220-or-so years, these controlled explosions have exponentially increased in power and efficiency. Advances in engineering and machining have helped the ICE become more powerful and efficient as it has developed. Still, when slamming an engine back together with factory specs or stuffing an engine with lots of exotic performance parts, the right break-in procedure helps keep those precise measurements in check.

Tighter tolerances, smoother surfaces and smaller gaps lead to more power and less wear. And if you spent a ton of money building up your hot rod, the last thing you want is for it to lose power because of a bad break-in.

A line of V6 engines at the Iwaki Plant of Japan’s Nissan Motor Co. in Iwaki, Fukushima.

For starters, you need a place to start your engine. If you don't have a handy engine stand in a dynamometer cell, you can always put together your own run-in stand (though if you're like us, you'll probably just install your freshly rebuilt engine into its future home). Making sure you have simple but essential gauges for oil pressure and coolant temperature will help you know if you did anything catastrophically wrong. Hooking it up to an exhaust system will help you hear if one of your rod bearings is eating itself or if you have valves slapping pistons.

Now is also a time to make a good visual inspection. The folks over at MAPerformance recommend “thoroughly inspecting ALL of the moving parts you’ve touched during installation,” along with all of your fluids.

Fluids—namely oil—is one of those hot-button issues over which we’ll probably never reach a consensus. But it’s best you follow whatever your camshaft or valvetrain component supplier recommends. For instance, if you're using a flat-tappet camshaft, you should probably lean on a healthy dose of ZDDP, but, again, your camshaft supplier should offer break-in instructions. An area where everyone does agree: priming the system. If you can, priming your oil pump and feeding oil throughout the engine will help prevent excessive wear from dry running. Yes, you should have oil and assembly lube already in place on your wear components, but it's still good practice. And change your oil early and often, like after initial break-in, at 500 miles, 1,500 miles and 4,000 miles.

If you’re running a flat tappet, run the engine between 2,000 and 2,500 rpm with no load on the engine for the first 30 minutes, according to Summit Racing. Let the engine cool down completely and repeat the process two-three more times. “Do not idle the engine for any extended period at this time. This is critical to break in the camshaft.” Roller cam engines do not require this procedure.

An engine needs to build up cylinder pressure to expand the piston rings and allow them to seat. Failure results in poor performance and blow by (high pressure on the top side of the piston pushes combustion gasses, as well as droplets of oil and fuel, past the piston rings and into the crankcase).

Once you’re finally rolling out of the garage, drive the vehicle at varying speeds and loads for the first 200 miles, according to ATK. Occasional full-throttle runs from a rolling start will help seat the rings. We said occasional! After 200 miles check the rockers/valve clearance and retorque the head bolts and intake manifold bolts.

If you want to be extra gentle, after 200 miles do five or six medium-throttle accelerations, a couple hard throttle accelerations and coast back to about 20 mph. From 500 to 1,000 miles, drive normally but keep rpm below 5,000. Always avoid long periods of idling during this time, says Summit.

It’s all a pain in the you-know-what. But it’s only 1,000-1,500 miles, and if you want to go 100,000 or 150,000 miles on your rebuilt or built-up motor, it’s a small price to pay. And your engine internals will thank you for it. Tolerance!

Зачетная работа

по учебной дисциплине «Иностранный язык (английский)»

для специальности «Техническое обслуживание и ремонт автомобильного транспорта»

1. Переведите слова:

2. Закончите предложения, выбрав соответствующее по смыслу окончание:

3. Употребите предлоги in, of, for, to, between:

1. The frame provides a firm structure … the body.

2. It connects the engine … the gears … the gearbox.

3. The basic principal operation … the clutch is a frictional force acting … two discs

4. To secure the several speeds … the car the clutch shaft is mounted.

5. Most braking systems … use today are hydraulic.

4. Поставьте глагол в правильной форме:

1. My problem might not seem like a problem, but it (be).

2. I (have) a cup of coffee at my local shopping centre with my best friend and there was this woman.

3. At first I thought it (be) a joke.

4. I (get) up late, and was wearing jeans and a sloppy jersey.

5. Anyway, my dad came with me to the agency and they took loads of photos and now they (offer) me a contract.

5. Выберите правильный ответ:

6. Вставьте слова transmission, body, slower, power, industry и переведите предложения на русский язык:

1. The engine is the source of … and makes the car move.

2. The … carries the power from the engine to the wheels.

3. The … has the hood, fenders, the heater and so on

4. The automobile … in our country has been developed since 1916.

5. Diesel oil is … burning, but it produces more power.

7. Закончите предложения, выбрав правильный по смыслу вариант окончания.

1. The internal combustion engine is called so because fuel is burned…

a) outside the engine;

b) inside the engine.

2. On the inlet stroke..............

a) the intake valve opens;

b) the intake valve is closed;

c) the intake and the exhaust valves are closed.

3. On the compression stroke..........

a). the intake valve opens;

b).the intake valve is closed;

c).the intake and the exhaust valves are closed.

4. On the power stroke ......

a).the intake valve opens;

b) the intake valve is closed;

c) the intake and the exhaust valves are closed.

5. On the exhaust stroke .........

a).the exhaust valve opens;

b).the intake valve is closed;

c).the intake and the exhaust valves are closed.

8. Прочитайте текст, переведите и ответьте на вопросы:

The automobile is made up of three basic parts: the power plant, or the engine, the chassis and the body.

The engine is the source of power that makes the wheels rotate and the car move. It includes fuel, cooling, lubricating and electric systems. Most automobile engines have six or eight cylinders.

The chassis includes a power train (power transmission), a running gear, steering and braking systems as well.

The power train carries the power from the engine to the car wheels.

The power transmission, in turn, contains the clutch, gearbox, propeller or cardan shaft, final drive, differential, rear axle and axle shafts. The running gear consists of a frame with axles, wheels and springs.

The body has a hood, fenders and accessories: the heater, stereo tape recorder, windshield wipers, conditioner, speedometer and so on.

1.What main parts is the automobile made up of?

2.What systems does the engine include?

3.What does the chassis consist of?

4.What has the body?

9. Переведите предложения на русский язык

1. Ever since cars and BMW motorcycles are perceived by the market not only as a sport.

2. Excellent design, powerful engines and high performance displays brand products to the world level.

3. Vintage cars today - the pearl of many collections.

4. Mercedes cars are popular, as in the new versions, and with the mileage.

5. This can significantly reduce cash costs and find a rare item.

Контрольная работа

по разделу Деловая поездка

Task 1. Translate the text into Russian

Business trip

Being a businessman you have to travel much, to meet many people, to arrange business deals and personal relations. It means you will often arrange business trips. Before you have a business trip you should do the following steps: prepare all business documents necessary for your meeting with a foreign partner.

Today, many people make their travel arrangements over the phone. They call the travel agent and book their flight, and then give their credit card number to pay for the plane ticket, if you are going to travel by plane. It is the fastest way of traveling and it is helpful if you are short of time, but it is rather expensive. If your destination is not far from your town you can travel by car or by train. It is a slower way of traveling but it is cheaper and quite comfortable.

If a visa is necessary, some travel agents take their customers’ passports to the embassy’s visa department. You should also have medical insurance documents with you when you are going to visit your foreign partner.

It’s not a good idea to carry lots of cash with you, so traveller’s cheques are a safe way to take money abroad. It’s easy to change them at the bank for foreign currency during your trip.

When people travel they almost always stay at hotels or guest-houses, so you should make a hotel reservation in advance by letter, telephone or e-mail. Let the hotel manager know the day and the time of your departure, or you may arrive at the hotel to be told that there are no rooms available.

If you travel abroad you must go through the customs inspection. The customs officials check your luggage and ask you to fill in the customs declaration form. Some of your things may be subjected to duty, some of them are duty free. If you have foreign currency you would indicate the sum in your declaration.

If you have made a hotel reservation in advance, on arrival you have to confirm your reservation at the reception desk. The receptionist will give you a registration form to fill in and sign (the form is filled in block letters).

At large hotels you may ask for any service by telephone. You tell the telephone operator if you want to be called at a certain time; you call room service when you want a meal or drinks or if you need something (e.g.: to clean or iron your suit or your dress).

Task 2. Match the words in the box to make word combinations.

Task 3.Complete each sentence 1-8 with an ending a) - h).

Task 1

(student A)

You want to speak to the Head of Sales at Bond & Co., a company which manufactures silk ties, because you want to stock their ties in your department store. You telephone the company. The Head of  Sales is not in his office so you leave a message with a Sales Representative.

• Explain who you are and who you would like to speak to.
• Give a brief presentation of your company.
• Explain what the reason of your telephone call is

Task 1

(student B)

Student B telephones you and asks to speak to the Sales who is not in the office at the moment, so you offer to take a message.

• Explain that the Head of Sales is not available and ask if you can take a message.
• Find out your caller’s name, and a contact number for her/him.
• Ask what message the caller wants to leave.

Task 2

(Student A)

You have arrived at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York Now you are to go to the Immigration. Speak to the Immigration officer.

• Explain the reason of your visit to the USA.
• Present your passport, landing card, invitation and return ticket

.

 Task 2

(Student B)

You are an Immigration officer at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York. Now you are to speak to the Russian tourist.

• Ask him/her the reason of his/her visit to the USA.

• Ask to present his/her passport, landing card, invitation and return ticket

Task 3

(Student A)

You arrived to London and you are looking for a hotel. You go to the Manor House Hotel.

Now you are going to speak to the receptionist

• You’d like a single room with a shower.
• It would be good to have a room overlooking the garden.
• You’ll take it for a week.
• You are ready to pay a deposit

Task 3

(Student B)

You are the receptionist at the Manor House Hotel. Now you are going to speak to the Customer.      

• Offer your help.
• Ask the name.
• Ask to spell the name.

CONTROL WORK 4

Variant 1

1. Прочитайте и переведите текст на русский язык. Ответьте на вопросы после текста

THE ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT

The economy comprises millions of people and thousands of firms as well as the government and local authorities, all taking decisions about prices and wages, what to buy, sell, produce, export, import and many other matters. All these organizations and the decisions they take play a prominent part in shaping the business environment in which firms exist and operate.

The economy is complicated and difficult to control and predict, but it is certainly important to all businesses. You should be aware that there are times when businesses and individuals have plenty of funds to spend and there are times when they have to cut back on their spending. This can have enormous implications for business as a whole.

When the economy is enjoying a boom, firms experience high sales and general prosperity. At such times, unemployment is low and many firms will be investing funds to enable them to produce more. They do this because consumers have plenty of money to spend and firms expect high sales. It naturally follows that the state of the economy is a major factor in the success of firms.

However, during periods when people have less to spend many firms face hard times as their sales fall. Thus, the economic environment alters as the economy moves into a recession. At that time, total spending declines as income falls and unemployment rises. Consumers will purchase cheaper items and cut expenditure on luxury items such as televisions and cars.

Changes in the state of the economy affect all types of business, though the extent to which they are effected varies. In the recession of the early 1990s the high street banks suffered badly. Profits declined and, in some cases, losses were incurred. This was because fewer people borrowed money from banks, thus denying them the opportunity to earn interest on loans, and a rising propotion of those who did borrow defaulted on repayment. These so called "bad debts" cut profit margins substantially. Various forecasters reckoned that the National Westminster Bank's losses in the case of Robert Maxwell's collapsing business empire amounted to over $100 million.

No individual firm has the ability to control this aspect of its environment. Rather, it is the outcome of the actions of all the groups which make up society as well as being infuenced by the actions of foreigners with whom the nation has dealings.

1.What does the economy comprise?

2.What part do all these organizations take in shaping the business environment?

2. Раскройте скобки, поставив глагол в соответствии с правилом согласования времен, и переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. They informed that some businessmen from their company (to go) to Moscow the next week. 2. He said that he (can) give us a discount of 5 % if we (to increase) the order. 3. She said she (to put) already the application in writing. 4. They asked if we (to enclose) the copy of the receipt. 5. They notified us they (to deliver) the goods the week before. 6. Mr. Bright wondered if we (to discuss) the matter the previous month. 7. Mrs. Jackson said she (not to agree) with the contract terms. 8. The representative of the Buyers asked what discount we (to offer). 9. He was interested to know when we (to sign) the contract. 10. He said that all the details (to be clarified) during the talks.

3. Перепишите следующие предложения, употребляя сложное дополнение вместо придаточного дополнительного предложения. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. We expected that our partners would be satisfied with the quality of our products. 2. The Seller guarantees that all the charges connected with the delivery will be paid by them. 3. I believe that the price is reasonable. 4. He didn’t expect that they would lodge a claim. 5. He believed that they would fulfill all the contract terms. 6. He believed that the goods would be shipped timely. 7. The Seller expected that they would pay the Buyer a penalty. 8. We think that your machinery meets our requirements. 9. We thought that they would pay compensation to the Seller for the eventual losses.10. They decided that they would undertake partial delivery.

4. Поставьте глагол в соответствующее время, форму и залог. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. I (to call) to confirm the appointment time now. 2. Your machines (not/to meet) our requirements. 3. We just (to start) selling machines of new model. 4. You (to receive) a letter of offer yet? 5. What goods you (to sell) now? 6. The company (to be interested) in selling or buying goods? 7. You (to study) the latest catalogues yesterday? 8. Our equipment (to be) of high quality. 9.  They (to give) us a discount if we (to increase) the order. 10. I (to have) an appointment with Mr. Johnson yesterday.