Year after year, century after century

Муниципальное автономное общеобразовательное учреждение средняя общеобразовательная школа № 29 города Липецка «Университетская»

Секция междисциплинарного и социокультурного образования средствами иностранных языков

Год за годом, век за веком

        Антипенков Михаил Романович

        Учащийся 11 «Б» класса

        Черных Ольга Ивановна        

        Учитель английского языка

Липецк 2021

CONTENTS

1.Introduction        3

2. The main part ……………………………………………………………………………………….4

      2.1 CHAPTER 1: OLD ENGLISH        5

      2.2 CHAPTER 2: MIDDLE ENGLISH        10

      2.3 CHAPTER 3:  NEW ENGLISH        17

3. CONCLUSION        20

4. Bibliographic list        21

5. Appendix 1        22

1.Introduction

«Learning is a treasure that will follow its owner everywhere».

(Chinese Proverb)

Learning is the only treasure that you can take wherever you go, means knowledge is the most precious one and it's never wasted and it will always be in the learner's mind.

Changes in the English language. It is the theme I have been learning this year. Like any other living language, English is constantly changing. Sounds, words, and grammatical constructions are also subject to changes. In the speech of native speakers, these changes often flow naturally. I, in my turn, became interested in the topic of changing words in the process of language evolution. I have learned a lot of information from various sourcers.

The aim of my project is to get some knowledges of English language’s long history and reasons of changes in lexical and grammatical rules.

Tasks: 

1) to explore the story of global language by reading some historic literature.

2) to highlight the most interesting facts and main events.

The hypothesis: resettlement of people had the greatest influence on the English language.

The methods:

1)To read the historic literature.

2) To highlight the main events.

3) To get all of these events together in chronological sequence.

Relevance: 

Currently, many people who use English in speech do not know the history of its development and the formation of some words that are a consequence of historical events. Because of this, they may be confused by the pronunciation or spelling of these words. The project "Year by year, century by century" will help those who are not indifferent to understand the issue and, perhaps, will encourage some to further study the factors influencing the structure of the language.

Exploring subject: The English language.

2. Main part

English is undoubtedly of great importance at the moment; many people learn it as a hobby, many - for a career, some study it for education... The goals may be very different, but the fact remains that the language is universal. A significant number of people of different nationalities communicate in it, as evidenced by the same significant number of existing dialects of the English language. More than two billion people use it in everyday speech! But what allowed him to occupy the main position among the languages? In order to answer this question, we will study the history of the formation of the language, passing through transformations in the forms of words, general rules of construction and originating in the M century of our era.

It was during this period of time that the German conquerors brought to Britain the Anglo-Frisian dialects, with which the subsequent transformations of the language begin. However, the basis of the language was laid long before this time by the most ancient ancestors of the English - at the time when the Jutes, Angles and Saxons lived on the European continent.

2.1CHAPTER 1: OLD ENGLISH

        Old English or, as it is commonly called, the Anglo-Saxon language began to form with the development of culture and the corresponding division of people into classes. The people who inhabited Britain back in the 3rd millennium BC - the people of the Iberians, were invaded by various Celtic tribes, with a gradation superior to each other in the development of culture - pottery, land cultivation, and so on. Having acquired the skill of production, a person realized the price of labor - thus, gradually, the division of resources and territories into the property of different people began to form in society; a large number of different labor-intensive jobs caused the division of people into classes-owning land, owning land freely and semi-slaves.

In 45 BC, the Roman Emperor Claudius invades Britain in order to gain benefits in the form of food, in particular, grain. In the course of exploitation, villas that previously belonged to the British went into operation; soon, estates are overgrown with defensive means, and the population accumulating around them forms small cities: Lodinium, which is modern London; Eburak, modern York, and others...

The Celts, still living in Britain, gradually begin to adopt Roman customs and traditions and lose their own culture until 407 AD - at this time, the Romans decide to leave the previously captured possessions due to the impossibility of managing such a remote land from the empire. At this time, the Germanic tribes attacked the Roman Empire, and soon-in the 5th century AD, they attacked the Celtic state, which was only recently founded among the Celts now free from any oppression of the Romans. After a difficult battle, the Celts had to retreat, and Britain was occupied by Germanic tribes.

The heptarchy period is the period of the end of the 6th century, during which 7 tribal kingdoms were formed on the territory of Britain.

During the existence of these states, the structure of society is replaced by another - the issue of private property becomes more acute, there is an obvious division into classes; in other words, a nationality is formed, and at this time the language of the English nationality is formed.

English culture and language were also influenced by the Scandinavians, who attacked the English in 876. As a result of the battles, peace was concluded; however, in the 11th century, the attacks continued, and as a result, England was captured and incorporated into Denmark. The Scandinavians moved to England, merging the two cultures together. As a result, England was freed from the power of Denmark, but the Scandinavians continued to live in it; over time, the British, who outnumbered the Scandinavians, gradually “absorbed” them. There are no more Scandinavians left, but English culture has changed somewhat in its traditions (including the language).

During the developing English culture, 4 dialects were formed at once: Northumbrian from the Angles; Mercian from the Angles and Saxons, Wessex from the Saxons and Kentish from the Jutes. The dialects differed in many ways in pronunciation and spelling; however, there were many similarities in all of them.1) Рассмотрим словарный состав языка того времени:

To begin with, let's define what the vocabulary fund is: it is the lexical base of the language, the most stable layer of its vocabulary, where the primitive, the most important and necessary, firmly established in people's lives and commonly used names of objects, phenomena, processes related to real effectiveness have gone first of all.На основе словарного фонда образуются остальные слова, например, путём сложения:

Is (лёд) + ceald (холодный) => isceald - холодный, как лёд.

Stip (сильный) + mod (характер) => stipmod - храбрый.

On (в) + wez (дорога) => onwez - в дорогу/прочь.

2) Многие слова были заимствованы из латинского языка:

Вино: Vinum (лат.) => win (др.-а).

Ящик: Cista (лат.) => cist (др.-а).

Груша: Pirum (лат.) => pepe (др.-а)

By the way, most of the words borrowed from the Latin language are just included in the vocabulary, being classified as necessary for the simplest social contact-trade, everyday life and so on.

The second layer of Latin borrowings are words of a bookish nature, formed as a result of the introduction of Christianity in England at the end of the 6th century. Например,

Папа: Papa (лат.) => papa (др.-а)

Монастырь: Monasterium (лат.) => munster (др.а)

Алтарь: Altaria (лат.) => altar (др-а.)

Affixation is a method of forming words using affixes, i.e. attaching affixes to the root or base of a word; Affixation was one of the most common methods of word formation:

Fisc (рыба) => fiscere (рыбак)

Writan (писать) => writere (писатель)

Hearpe (арфа) => hearpreste (арфистка)

The demand for this technique can be explained by the rapidly emerging new professions; the person engaged in work had to be identified somehow, and this method was the simplest and most effective.

The words of the Old English language took affixes to express their interaction with other words of the sentence; the word order in the language was more free. They consisted of a root, a suffix, and an ending. In addition to the case (of which there were only 4: nominative, genitive, dative and accusative), nouns were also determined by the number, gender and basis. With the number and gender, everything is simple: the first shows the number of objects in question. The second is the gender of the object: male, female, etc. What is the division into bases? It implies a description of the word that is included in the word itself; for example, the Russian suffix-yat-indicates the small age of a living being. The same division was also in Old English:Sweostor (сестра)

Dohtor (дочь)

As we can see, in both these cases, the sign of the base-er indicates that the word belongs to the meaning of a kinship relationship. By the way, such a division is inherent in all ancient Indo-European languages. It is believed that his goal in the language was an attempt to classify an immense number of words and concepts according to various characteristics (mainly related to everyday life or economy).

As for adjectives, they agreed with the noun and declined according to two forms, the choice of which depended on the uncertainty of the agreed noun; also, as in modern English, there was a change in the degree of comparison.

By an indefinite form, we mean general concepts, by a definite one - specific ones. Например,

Monn (человек, как понятие) => se monn (конкретный человек)

Cwen (женщина, как понятие) => seo swen (конкретная женщина)

Modern English has completely lost the division into declension forms; however, it still remains in German.

During the existence of the English language, the indefinite form of adjectives has undergone serious changes; in Old English (as in all other Old German languages), the adjective system is characterized by endings borrowed from the pronominal declension system: М. Р:

Дат. Падеж; ед. число: -um;

Вин. Падеж; ед. число: -ne;

Именит. Падеж; мн. число: -e;

Родит. Падеж; мн. число: -ra;

Ж. Р:

Родит. Падеж; мн. число: -ra;

Родит. Падеж; ед. число: -re;

Дат. Падеж; ед.число: -re;

Ср. Р:

Дат. Падеж; ед. число: -um;

Родит. Падеж; мн. число: -ra;

Speaking of cases, that is to say; in General, they are similar to the modern Russian language:

Genitive possessive, partitively (a phenomenon a part of something), measure the circumstance of time or course of action; it is also used after certain adjectives (e.g., full - complete (something).

The dative case indicates the object to which the action is directed.

The accusative case expresses a direct complement, a long period of time; it is used with some prepositions.

Now let's talk about the degrees of comparison; Old English both then and now has three degrees of comparison: comparative, superlative and positive.

The positive degree was no different, while the comparative degree was formed with the addition of the suffix-ra to the adjective, formed from the older suffixes-ira and-ora. In a similar way, an excellent one was obtained: the suffix-est was added to the end of the word, which is a reduction of the suffixes-ist and-ost.

Nevertheless, there were (and still are) suppletive forms of adjective degrees.

Suppletivism is the formation of the inflectional form of a certain word in a unique way for the language (often from another root and/or using a unique alternation).

It is believed that these forms are formed differently from the rules due to the lack of general rules for the formation of comparative degrees at the time of the appearance of words expressing comparison. Previously, such comparisons were expressed by adjectives, which, after the appearance of a general scheme of word formation, began to be used for comparison as more familiar:  Good: Positive-Comparative-Superlative:

Modern English: good – better – the best;

Old English: zod – betera – betst;

Interrogative and negative sentences in English were formed differently from the usual ordinary sentences throughout the history of the language, starting with Old English:

The interrogative form was formed with the predicate moving to the place before the subject. Indirect questions were compiled with the introduction of the particle yf - an analogue of the Russian “li”. This method was used to ask general questions; questions about the minor members of the sentence were made using the interrogative word.

Negative sentences were formed using negative ne particles:

Nan - никто

Naht - ничто

In addition, there could be an unlimited number of negatives, unlike in modern English; just as in Russian:

Ne con ic noht sizan - я не могу ничего спеть. - В данном предложении стоят два отрицания ne и noht

A feature of the language of that time was the possibility of a negative particle to merge with the next word:

Ne habban -> nabban

Ne wiste – nyste

Indirect speech was constructed by coordinating the tenses of sentences - the main and subordinate; if the time of the past main sentence was consistent with the subordinate, then the subordinate took the subjunctive form of the past tense.

As in Russian, there were two types of complex sentences in Old English - compound and compound;

The connection between simple sentences of compound sentences was expressed by the union and-Russian “and".

The connection between the simple in the complex was expressed either in union or non-union ways.

So, as we can see, at the time of the Old English language, many concepts were only at the stage of their formation, requiring the introduction of new words to denote. Many of the rules of the modern language were already formed at this time; however, many have changed, so that it is hardly possible to identify this language as English in any form. But further changes in the language (in particular, the period of the Middle English language) will be discussed in the next chapter.

2.2 CHAPTER 2: MIDDLE ENGLISH

The history of the development of the language continues. We will talk about the events of 1066 - this year, the troops of Normandy, led by William, who will later receive the nickname “The Conqueror”, went to England with the aim of conquest. Having won the victory, William was then proclaimed king of England, and Normandy became part of it. England adopted feudalism; because of this, there was a clear stratification between the inhabitants; feudal lords and barons were located on the edges. The former were significantly lower legally on the social ladder, and also had much less. There were a huge number of other social statuses between them, each of which was legally unique.

For the next few centuries, England was in the process of rapid development, building up cities that would later become centers of trade with Flanders. Many new professions appeared at this time, which, in turn, led to the formation of new words and concepts. Due to all the above-mentioned factors, capitalist relations began to form; the internal market began to develop. By the end of the XIV century, the capitalist system almost completely envelops the life of the peasants, mostly freeing them from serfdom.

London stood out especially against the background of others as the center of all business relations; its residents receive special privileges; England of the XIV century already had signs of a national state.

In addition, London was located at the junction of several dialects, which is why it developed its own special dialect; and since it was the business center of the country, all documents, many literature and various instructions were distributed in the London dialect, which gradually covered the whole country.

The dialects that were previously widespread throughout England continue to develop; Scottish was widespread in the lowland part of Scotland and was founded by the northern part of the Northumbrian dialect. In the future, Scotland becomes a separate state with its own culture, based on numerous cultural monuments.

Further, the northern dialect, formed on the basis of the northern and southern dialects of the Northumbrian dialect, spread north from the mouth of the Humber River to the borders of the Scottish dialect.

On the basis of the Mercian dialect of the ancient period, the central dialects located north of the River Thames - East-central and west-central-were formed.

There were also southern dialects formed on the basis of the Wessex and Kentish dialects - southwestern and Kentish.

Due to the settlement of the territory of England by the Normans, the languages gradually began to mix. The Norman dialect of French was recognized as the official state language; nevertheless, the English continued to speak their usual language. The number of Normans was so small that the majority of the English gradually "absorbed" the French language; the process accelerated with the separation of Normandy from England and the isolation of the Normans remaining in the separated England. In 1349, French was replaced by English. By 1362, English was used in court proceedings instead of French; however, the latter was still used at court. In 1477, the French language was removed from the role of being used in teaching at school.

And again we will talk about the vocabulary structure of the language - now Middle English. The mixing of the cultures of the two peoples and the transfer of new, previously unknown to the British types of activity, could not but affect, first of all, the volume of the vocabulary.

So, Middle English largely borrowed words from the French language:Vilein - крестьянин;

Paisant - свободный владелец земельного участка;

Baron - барон.

В связи с развитием ремесла было образовано множество новых понятий с основой в виде рода деятельности и добавлением к нему аффиксов -er; -man;

Brewer - пивовар; от слова - brewen - варить пиво.

Deyer - красильщик; от слова - deyen - красить.

Craftsman - ремесленник; от слова - craft - ремесло.

-er - видоизменённый, но ранее употреблявшийся в речи суффикс; ранее принимал вид -ere.

The suffixes-ing, -ness were often used in speech, which passed into the middle from the old and continue to be extremely productive in word formation:

Bigynnyng - начало, bigynnen - начинать;

Huntyng – охота, hunten - охотиться;

Kindness - доброта, kind - добрый.

Некоторые суффиксы использовались редко, тем не менее, вносили свою лепту в образующийся язык; например, суффикс -had, что принял форму -hood:

Brotherhood - братство, brother - брат;

Neighebourhood - соседство, neighebour - сосед;

Falsehood - ложь, fals - ложный.

Ещё как пример одного из продуктивных суффиксов можно указать -scipe, что принял форму -ship:

Knyghtship - звание рыцаря;

Ladyship - звание леди;

Lordship - звание лорда.

As we can see, the suffix-ship was used mostly to indicate the name; this was the role it played at the time. We will also mention other productive su

-pu, принявший во времена среднеанглийского языка вид -the;

-mis, придающий действиям качество ошибочности;

-un, придающий значение отрицания.

Wealthe - богатство, wele - благо;

Mistake - взять по ошибке, take - брать;

Unhappy - несчастлив, happy - счастливый.

During the development of the Middle English language, the methods of word formation have changed; a new method of forming new words has appeared - conversion, the root method of word formation. However, many methods remained afloat, such as adding the basics:

Foot - нога + ball - мяч => football - футбол;

Pen - перо + knife - нож => penknife - перочинный нож;

Table - стол + cloth - одежда => tablecloth - скатерть.

Addition of the preposition and the basis; addition of the adverb and verb bases and addition of the verb and noun bases:

After - после + noon - полдень => afternoon - полдень;

In - внутрь + come - приходить => income - доход;

Breken - ломать + fast - пост => breakfast - завтрак

It was during the period of the Middle English language that a large number of pronouns (in particular indefinite ones) were formed in a similar way:Any - какой-либо + body - человек => anybody - кто угодно;

Some - некоторый + body => somebody - кто-то;

No - никакой + body => nobody - никто.

With the transformations, the language became more and more similar to modern English. So, for example, there was a process of vowel reduction in non-elementary syllables, which had a clear influence in the field of word formation - morphological differences between nouns and verbs are erased; the adjective name has become an almost unchangeable part of speech, completely reducing the possible variants of word design and the ending-n has disappeared - many adjectives began to morphologically correspond to the verb form of the word. For example:Smoke - дым, smoken - курить;

This is how the same-root words looked until the XIV century; then the above-mentioned transformations took place, which made both forms take a single form:

Smoke - дым, smoke - курить.

This phenomenon is called homonymy of word forms - the relationship of lexical units that coincide in form and are not related in meaning.

This transformation led to the emergence of a new concept of the method of word formation - root (conversion), which was mentioned earlier. The formation occurred as in the direction of nouns:

To call - кричать => call - выкрик;

Так и в сторону глаголов:

A land - земля => to land - высаживаться.

However, not all homonyms were formed in this way. Take, for example, the noun answer-answer, which was formed from the Old English andswaru, and compare it with the verb to answer-answer, formed in the same way from the Old English andswarian; as we can see, they were not formed by homonymy of word forms. Such words are called historical homonyms.

It is also worth paying attention to literary techniques. For example, paired synonyms. Paired synonyms are stable synonymous phrases that are used to more accurately convey the meaning of one of the synonymous words. This technique appeared because of the desire of writers to convey their thoughts more accurately; often, one word is not enough for people to accurately convey their thoughts. Synonyms in English already existed at that time, for example:

We willen and unnen - мы хотим и желаем; фрагмент из “Воззваний Генриха III”.

Borrowed Scandinavian and French words with similar meanings are actively used as synonyms:

Waneth and dyscreaseth - убывает и уменьшается.

Here is the word  dyscreaseth – is of French origin

There are also etymological doublets - words of the same root, but originated in different ways:

Shirte - рубашка, от английского sceorte,

Skyrte - юбка, от скандинавского skyrta;

Let's move on to the grammatical structure. The previously mentioned homonymy of words led to the disappearance of case endings among all other words. This was caused by the transition from full to incomplete vowels in case endings, which were depicted on the letter with the letter   e:

Caru - ед. число, cara - мн. число => care - ед. и мн. число.

Due to the lack of difference between the plural and singular forms of the nominative case, the ability to distinguish them was lost, which contributed to the transformation of the Old English ending-as, which at some time was used only in relation to masculine words, into the modified-es for expressing the plural:

Word + -es => wordes.

Almost all other case endings gradually disappear; however, not all words have changed in the form of the number in this way. In different parts of England, this process proceeded at different speeds - with a difference of up to 3 centuries! It is precisely because of this uneven reduction that we have that some words were formed in a different way from this one up to the XVI century:

Sho - ботинок => shoon - ботинки;

Eye - глаз => eyen - глаза;

Oxe - бык => oxen - быки.

Many words throughout the Old English did not change their form, preserving the homonymy of the forms of numbers; some of them remain so to this day, such as teeth; some have changed towards addition with the suffix s to form the plural, for example, things. There are also unique cases - children, the word is formed on the basis of the Old English word child with the addition of the indicators of the set-re and-n.

The comparative degree of adjectives also could not but undergo changes. To begin with, the affix-ra, which acts in the comparative degree of the adjective, has changed and has taken the form-re. Later, the letter e was formed between this affix and the extreme vowel of the root; even later, the affix was simplified to a short-er, which it remains to this day. The changes also affected the superlative degree - the possible forms of its formation-west and-ost eventually merged into a single form-est, which has also survived to the present day. During the Middle English period, only a small number of adjectives remain, forming a form of comparison with the so-called " front inflection”, changing the word not only at the end, but also at the beginning:Old – elder – eldest (старый - старше - старейший);

Long – lenger – lengest (длинный - длиннее - длиннейший);

Strong – strenger – strengest (сильный - сильнее - сильнейший).

Of all such words, as a result, only the word old has retained its form, which now has a narrower meaning; for example, elder brother - older brother. Old English comparative forms like better and best have undergone changes due to changes in the system of sounds of the language

- betera => bettre; bests => best.

In the XV century, a new way of defining the form of adjective comparison, known to us, appeared - an analytical type of comparison. The adjective remains unchanged, but the words more (more) and the most (most) are placed before it. This method was applied to words containing more than two syllables:

Painfull – more painfull – the most painfull (болезненный - более болезненный - наиболее болезненный).

This method of addition is caused by a violation of the established rhythm of the language at that time by adding an unstressed affix to three-syllable words. At the same time, it is worth noting that two methods of forming the degree of comparison were often used in the literature at the same time:

More better - более лучше;

The most worst - самый наихудший.

This feature of the literary language was preserved until the XVIII century, after which it became considered a vernacular.

The same Middle English language has also changed personal pronouns. After some transformations, the feminine singular pronoun coincided in spelling with the same masculine pronoun - he. In order to distinguish them from each other, the feminine pronoun began to be replaced by an indicative pronoun of the same kind seo, which gradually took the form of she, familiar to modern man.

A similar story happened with the third plural pronoun, which gradually took the form hi, consonant with the masculine singular; due to the similarity of sounds, confusion arose during communication, and gradually it took the form -  thei.

There was also a form - hem, changed into   -  them, but now is met  in speech - call ’em - call hem - позовите их.

The formation of demonstrative pronouns occurred in the same period, giving the people of England two types of such - long and short distances. In Old English, demonstrative pronouns had the categories of gender and number; in Middle English, these properties were reduced. The demonstrative pronoun this was increasingly used to indicate a nearby object, regardless of its gender. The thos form also appeared, denoting the plural of a remote object. It turned out that for each type of pronouns there was both a singular and a plural:  This – thes (- these);

That – thos (в дальнейшем - those).

Gradually, new absolutely possessive pronouns are formed in the language: due to the general tendency to omit -n at the end of words, pronouns like  min, thin (мой, твой), previously used in this form before words starting with vowels, they take the form my and thy for all possible conditions of use, except for the use at the end of the sentence - in this case, they were still used in their original form.

Over time, there was a tendency to use forms my и thy, а min и thin - в предикативном. So there were two rows of possessive pronouns - my, thy, his, her, our, your, their и mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, which were used at the absolute end of sentences, which is where the name came from.

The affix-s at the end was formed as a result of the tendency to supplement all words ending in e with the affix-s, which is further fixed in possessive pronouns.

The structure of words has also changed; due to the weakening of vowels in unstressed syllables, a number of features that distinguish different groups of words by suffixes have been lost, forming a single type of verbs. Gradually, verbs with suffixation replaced verbs with alternation.

Meanwhile, the suffix-de gradually began to take the form-te in verbs whose roots ended - l, n, ld, nd, rd:

Feled => felt (чувствовать);

Gyred => girt (опоясывать);  Sended => sent (отправлять).

Также сочетание oh в формах прошедшего времени приняло вид ough и augh:

Broht => brought (принести)

The verb sell, got the form - sold по причине того, что в древнеанглийский период он имел форму salde. То же самое относится и к глаголу tell.

Towards the end of the Old English period, the concept of various tenses began to emerge - perfect, future tense and passive...

Previously, the words beon, haben, wollen, sollen were ordinary verbs and were used freely; however, due to extremely frequent use, they lost their meaning over time and took the form of auxiliary verbs:

The droughte of marche hath perced to the roote (засуху Марта пронзил до корня) - глагол hath полностью утратил своё лексическое значение “имеет”.

These verbs, having lost their lexical meaning, become auxiliary for constructing sentences of the newly formed tenses Past Perfect and Present Perfect. At the same time, there was a construction rule - if the verbs of movement or state were used in the sentence, then the auxiliary verb be (to be) was used; if there were none, have (to have). However, over time, the verb to be is replaced by the verb to have; apparently, in order to distinguish between the perfect tense and the passive voice, which was also finally formed at this time:

Is come-has come; is written - is being written.

At the time of the Middle English language, the location of the auxiliary verb in the sentence was free; it will become fixed only in New English.

The Continuous forms also appeared at this time. They, as to this day, are formed with the help of the verb to be and-ing the endings of the main verb and indicate the relationship of the action with the moment of speech or the moment specified in speech. Such forms began to form back in the time of the Old English language, but even if they appeared in the texts of contemporaries, they can hardly be considered directly related to the Continuous time. The verb be was formed, presumably, in the context of indicating the location of the object of discussion: He IS on hunting (he is on the hunt). Gradually, the preposition is simplified into the prefix a: He is a hunting, which soon disappears altogether, forming the usual form of the sentence-he is hunting.

The word order of Middle English was more rigid than that of Old English; it is assumed that due to the homonymy of case affixes.

There is no difference between the nominative and accusative forms of nouns. The ways of expressing syntactic relations have also changed towards the widespread use of prepositions; for example, the preposition of, expressing the source of origin, the material from which the object is made; the preposition to, expressing the direction of action, and others.

As we can see, the main features of the language and the rules were formed during the period of the Middle English language. No wonder it is so similar to the modern language, and the reader will recognize it much easier than Old English.

2.3 CHAPTER 3:  NEW ENGLISH

The language continues to develop. Now we are talking about the formation of the language as a national one and the consolidation of such norms. Already in the XIII – XV centuries, people spoke at least the same language - English, even if there were small differences between local dialects. The norm of the language in the same period began to be considered the London dialect. Almost the entire territory of England was inhabited by the British, which determined the unity of the nation and contributed to its formation. The capitalist regime gradually gained popularity; industry and trade accelerated - an internal market was formed. As a result of the War of the Roses (1455-1485), most of the feudal lords died and an absolute Tudor monarchy reigned in the country; based on the nobility and the bourgeoisie. In the XVI – XVII centuries there was an agrarian revolution, and in the XVIII century - an industrial revolution. All these events entail the formation of a huge number of new words. In the XVIII - XIX centuries, a process of colonial expansion took place, spreading languages to other countries - America, Australia and others.

The national English language spread throughout the country extremely quickly. The reason for this was the recognition of the language as necessary for teaching in schools in the XIV century, literature written in it, printing, introduced in 1477; dialects gradually died out. Capitalism has accelerated the process of unification of the language, creating the need for interaction of even the most mutually distant enterprises.

Eplacing dialects, the language absorbs some features of speech, complementing and changing. Professional languages are emerging - some concepts of which are known only to masters of specific positions. At the same time, “slang” appears, which is mainly used by criminals to transfer information among themselves without the ability of third parties to understand them - such a kind of cipher method. Literature is developing rapidly, gifting cultures with masterpieces like "Robinson Crusoe". The New English language becomes much more precise and unchangeable; the norms of the language are fixed.

The classical style of speech, based solely on dictionary norms and specific rules, was considered the norm. However, gradually another style was formed - an artistic one that uses abbreviations of the type that have long been used in the language is not => isn’t.

In 1755, Samuel Johnson's explanatory dictionary was written. The words of the New English language were formed by a variety of very diverse images - for example, borrowing from various languages, such as Spanish, Latin, Dutch and even Russian! For example, such words as samovar and zakouska, without a doubt, were formed in English with our help; such assistance was provided only since the XVI century - then Elizabeth established correspondence with our ruler Ivan IV due to the improving maritime trade.

As it becomes clear, capitalism played a decisive role in the formation of new words; nevertheless, many words related to the early, now not relevant culture, went out of circulation and were forgotten.

Traveling to different countries introduced the English to new phenomena that were previously unfamiliar to them, and it was necessary to come up with new words to denote them. This was also facilitated by the development of science and philosophy - abstract concepts that were not previously used in speech.Многие слова образуются с использованием суффиксов -er (-or), -man, -ing; Образуются на основе французского и новые суффиксы - -ment, -al, -ity, -ance; образуются и префиксы -re и -dis.

Often, the way of adding words participated in word formation; gerund + noun, for example. Some words were formed by shortening other words-omnibus => bus. This method is often used in colloquial speech; in our time, it has become even more often used in the formation of new words. Many words are formed in the previously mentioned suffixless way - with the help of a particle:

A head (голова) => to head (возглавить);

A bomb (бомба) => to bomb (сбрасывать бомбы);

A mine (мина) => to mine (минировать).

Работает метод в обе стороны:

To bend (сгибаться) => a bend (сгиб);

To bow (кланяться) => a bow (поклон);

To stop (остановливаться) => a stop (остановка).

Подобное происходит  и с прилагательными - calm (спокойный) - to calm (успокаивать). Такой способ является самым продуктивным из всех.

Some words arose from proper names-Jersey-an island containing a special kind of wool buckle. The word jersey is derived from it - a sweatshirt. Boycott is the name of the captain, from which the verb to boycott comes-to boycott; The tenants stopped working with him in protest against the cruel exploitation.

Some words have changed their meaning in the course of history. Example-railway-which used to mean a wooden road for trains, later took on the meaning of a railway, after it came into use.

Grammatical norms also changed over time. Nouns. Forming plural forms by adding the suffix-en completely switch to the suffix-es (except for children and ox). The plural form of the word brothers passes into brothers, retaining the original spelling for use in the narrow meaning of brothers. The suffix-es became so widespread that many nouns that originally had it at the end were reinterpreted and received a new plural meaning; they formed the same singular words that were not previously used in speech - peas (peas as a concept, many hours) => pea (pea). However, not all nouns have adopted such a plural form construction system. Some, such as man and tooth, formed the plural by alternating the vowel root-men and teeth.

Another s at the end was used to form the possessive case, which appeared in the New English period. Belonging at the time of the Middle English language was expressed using the pronouns his and others, for example-The pupil his book. - the student's book. In the XV century, the phrase was simplified and took the form of the pupil's book; gradually, the form of belonging begins to be expressed using the affex ' s. In addition, since that time, the peculiarity of use has taken root - when specifying several owners, the affex is placed to the last one specified in the sentence.

In the XV century, thou (you) begins to be gradually replaced by ye, which is quickly replaced by you, who has taken a similar meaning to him and accepted his meaning. The first letter of the pronoun it (it) is reduced, turning it into it. In oral speech, there was a tendency to use me instead of I – It's me (It's I). On the basis of the word self, reflexive pronouns were formed - myself, for example.

Verbs have undergone serious changes; the three tenses that are familiar to us have been formed.

Of course, the topic of language development has much deeper roots that require more detailed research. But even this material helped me to open the secret veil and answer the question about the variety of rules for reading and pronouncing English words.

3.CONCLUSION

The English language has very long and exciting story, but a lot of people do not know it. For example, I have tested some of my friends to find out if they know some basic knowledge  of the old English language, so I have found out that there are some of them can answer the historical and practical questions correctly (Application 1).

England has passed through the wars and resettlements of people with its language and its history. Many things is left behind, many events is just in front of England with its great people. I think that I’m going to remain working on my project with the aim to improve it. I hope this work will help to widen the knowledge of the English language structure.

4. BIBLIOGRAPHIC LIST

1) Аракин В. Д. История английского языка: учеб. пособие - 2-е изд. - М.: ФИЗМАТЛИТ, 2003. - 272с. - ISBN 5-9221-0032-7.

2) Интернет-ресурсы:

Текстология:

(https://www.textologia.ru/slovari/lingvisticheskie-terminy/osnovnoy-slovarniy-fond/?q=486&n=1212) Просмотрено: 18.01.2021.

Википедия: (https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F) Просмотрено: 23.02.2021.

5.APPLICATION 1: