Проектная работа "Реальный английский: метафора / Real English: Metaphor"

Real English: Metaphor

Introduction

The aim of this project work is studying the role of metaphor in the contemporary English.

In order to take full advantage of the opportunities offered by the ability of speaking English, it is important to be aware of the extent to which our linguistic and cultural backgrounds  differ from the partner’s you are communicating with. An area where linguistic and cultural differences are particularly obvious is in the use of metaphor, as the understanding of metaphor often involves a sophisticated understanding of background assumptions and conventions that vary significantly across cultures and disciplines.

 In this paper we try to explore how metaphor is used in the English language and the ways in which the interlocutors use metaphor to help them communicate their own ideas.

Therefore, what are ‘metaphors’ and how do they work in the language?

Metaphor Definition

Metaphor is a figure of speech that makes an implicit, implied or hidden comparison between two things or objects that are poles apart from each other but have some characteristics common between them. A metaphor says that one thing is another different thing. This allows us to use fewer words and forces the reader or listener to find the similarities.

In simple English, when we portray a person, place, thing, or an action as being something else, even though it is not actually that “something else,” you are speaking metaphorically. For instance, “He is the black sheep of the family” is a metaphor because he is not a sheep and is not even black. However, we can use this comparison to describe an association of a black sheep with that person. A black sheep is an unusual animal and typically stays away from the herd, and the person you are describing shares similar characteristics.

The word metaphor comes from the Greek word metapherin meaning "transfer".

The simplest form of metaphor is "The [first thing] is a [second thing]."

There are some examples:

• Her home was a prison.

In the above sentence, we understand immediately that her home had some of the characteristics of a prison. Mainly, we imagine, she could not leave her home. She was trapped inside. Why it was a prison we do not know, but that would be clear from the context. Perhaps her parents forced her to stay at home, perhaps she was afraid of the outside. We do not know, but the rest of the story would tell us. What is important here is that in five simple words we understand a lot about her environment, how she felt and how she behaved.  In this sentence, "prison" is a metaphor.

Look at another example:

• George is a sheep.

What is one characteristic of sheep? They follow each other. We can imagine that George is a follower, not a leader. In this sentence "sheep" is a metaphor.

The metaphor category also contains these specialized types:

• Allegory: An extended metaphor wherein a story illustrates an important attribute of the subject.
• Catachresis: A mixed metaphor used by design and accident (a rhetorical fault).
• Parable: An extended metaphor narrated as an anecdote illustrating and teaching such as in Aesop's fables, or Jesus' teaching method as told in the Bible.

Metaphors in common language

If people are asked to think of an example of a metaphor, well-known quotations from literary texts like ‘Juliet is the sun’ or ‘All the world’s a stage’ tend to be the ones that spring to mind. We would be less likely to think of utterances like ‘They gave us a warm welcome’ or ‘He shouldered all the blame’, perhaps because the way of expressing these notions is so familiar and conventional that they do not seem to us like metaphoric uses of language. Yet, if we think about

this a little, we can see that welcomes do not have a temperature that can be measured, and ‘blame’ is not something that we can literally carry about on our shoulders. But because we regularly talk about our emotional responses to others in this way (for example, ‘a cold, calculating person’) or conventionally use body part terms to denote processes that are not literally true (for example, we don’t actually ‘give’ anyone a hand when we help them, nor does anyone or anything literally ‘catch’ our eye when we notice them) they seem the natural way of expressing these notions even though they are metaphors. In fact, metaphor plays a very important role in creating new senses of words.

To get an idea of how metaphorical expressions in everyday language can give us insight in the metaphorical nature of the concepts that structure our everyday activities, we can see how George Lakoff and Mark Johnsen consider the metaphorical Time is money as it is reflected in contemporary English.

        Time is money:

• You’re wasting my time.
• This gadget will save you hours.
• I don’t have the time to give you.
• How do you spend your time these days?
• That flat tire cost me an hour.
• I’ve invested a lot of time in her.
• I don’t have enough time to spare for that.
• You need to budget your time.
• He is living on borrowed time.
• I lost a lot of time when I got sick.

Time in our culture is a valuable commodity. It is a limited resource that we use to

accomplish our goals. Corresponding to the fact that we act as if time is a limited resource, even money, we conceive of time that way. Thus, we understand and experience time as the kind of thing that can be spent, wasted, budgeted, invested wisely or poorly, saved or squandered.

        Time is money, time is a limited resource, and time is a valuable commodity are all metaphorical concepts.

In fact, all of us in our routine life speak, write and think in metaphors. We cannot avoid them. Metaphors are sometimes constructed through our common language. They are called conventional metaphors. Calling a person a “night owl” or an “early bird” or saying “life is a journey” are common conventional metaphor examples commonly heard and understood by most of us.

Below are some more conventional metaphors we often hear in our daily life:

• My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry.)
• The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment was not difficult.)
• It is going to be clear skies from now on. (This implies that clear skies are not a threat and life is going to be without hardships.)
• The skies of his future began to darken. (Darkness is a threat; therefore, this implies that the coming times are going to be hard for him.)
• Her voice is music to his ears. (This implies that her voice makes him feel happy.)

Metaphors in Literature

Metaphors are very common in everyday language. However, metaphors are used in all types of literature but not so often as in poetry.  Poems are meant to communicate complex images and feelings to the readers, and metaphors state the comparisons most emotively. Here are some examples of metaphor from famous poems.

• William Shakespeare (1564 – 1616) was the best exponent of the use of metaphors. His poetical works and dramas all make wide-ranging use of metaphors:

“All the world is a stage,
And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances …”

This quotation contains a metaphor because the world is not literally a stage. By figuratively asserting that the world is a stage, Shakespeare uses the points of comparison between the world and a stage to convey an understanding about the mechanics of the world and the lives of the people within it.

• “Shall I Compare Thee to a summer’s Day,”

“Sonnet 18,”also known as “Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day,” is an extended   metaphor between the love of the speaker and the fairness of the summer season.

• “She is all states, and all princes, I.”

John Donne (1572 – 1631), a metaphysical poet, was well-known for his abundant use of metaphors throughout his poetical works. In his well-known work “The Sun Rising,” the speaker scolds the sun for waking him and his beloved. Among the most evocative metaphors in literature, he explains “she is all states, and all princes, I.” This line demonstrates the speaker’s belief that he and his beloved are richer than all states, kingdoms, and rulers in the entire world because of the love that they share.

•  “Before high-pil’d books, in charact’ry / Hold like rich garners the full-ripened grain,”

The great Romantic poet John Keats (1795 – 1821) suffered great losses in his life – the death of his father in an accident, and of his mother and brother through tuberculosis. When he began displaying signs of tuberculosis himself at the age of 22, he wrote “When I Have Fears,” a poem rich with metaphors concerning life and death. In the line “before high-pil’d books, in charact’ry / Hold like rich garners the full-ripened grain”, he employs a double-metaphor.

• The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty trees,
  The moon was a ghostly galleon tossed upon cloudy seas,
  The road was a ribbon of moonlight over the purple moor,
  And the highwayman came riding -
  Riding – riding -
  The highwayman came riding, up to the old inn-door.

In this verse from The Highwayman by Alfred Noyes (1880 –1958 ) we can spot three metaphors in the first three lines.

The function of metaphors

From the above arguments, explanations and examples, we can easily infer the function of metaphors, both in our daily lives and in a piece of literature.

Using appropriate metaphors appeals directly to the senses of listeners or readers, sharpening their imaginations to comprehend what is being communicated to them. Moreover, it gives a life-like quality to our conversations and to the characters of the fiction or poetry. Metaphors are also ways of thinking, offering the listeners and the readers fresh ways of examining ideas and viewing the world.

 Metaphors add color to creative writings, also establishing depth. A story without metaphors is lifeless, unable to compose another way to view it. Metaphors help the brain create a mental picture. This way the person might easily understand what the character is feeling. 
When the reader (listener) finally makes the connection between the metaphor and the idea, the story takes a deeper meaning.

Ways of making metaphors    

Metaphors can be made in different ways. 

The simplest way to make a metaphor is to use this pattern:

First noun + to be verb + a/an + second noun

There are examples of the simplest form of metaphors that are nouns with sample sentences and meanings:

Here are a few more examples of metaphors. Even though they are not written in the same pattern, they do compare two different nouns:
                                                My boss fired the snake.
(The employee is being compared to a snake. The boss fired an employee who was sneaky and not trustworthy.)

                                    He has a heart of stone.

(His heart is being compared to a stone. He is angry and mean.)

                        The bride wore a dress of snow.

(The dress is being compared to snow. The dress is soft and white.)

All the above metaphors are nouns.  There are other ways of making metaphors, for example with verbs or adjectives. Here are some examples:

Metaphors and Similes

Understanding metaphors is not always easy. Many people get similes and metaphors mixed up. 

Similes and metaphors are the two most common types of figurative language in the English language. Similes and metaphors both compare two different things that do not usually go together. The difference between them is that a simile uses the words "like" or "as" and a metaphor does not:

with like/as   =>  simile
without like/as   =>  metaphor

The word "simile" comes from the Latin root similes. The word "similar" also uses the

same root word.
           Similes and metaphors are often used in stories, music, and poetry to create good descriptions. Reasons to use similes and metaphors are the following:

• for comparison
• for emphasis or stress
• to add some humor
• to make something clear or easy to understand
• to say something in a new way
• to help the reader/listener form a picture in their mind
• to make something interesting and descriptive

Both similes and metaphors link one thing to another. Similes compare two different

things that do not usually go together. However, a metaphor creates a relationship directly and leaves more to the imagination.

With simile A is like B. With metaphor A is B:

There are two ways to form a simile:
           1. as + adjective/adverb + as + noun

            2. verb + like + noun

This is a list of some common similes:

• sleep like a baby
• as cute as a kitten
• as white as snow

• as cold as ice.
• as gentle as a lamb
• as funny as a clown
• as light as a feather
• as colorful as a rainbow
• as slow as a turtle
• as pretty as a flower
• as tall as a giant
• as quiet as a mouse
• as wise as an owl
• as hungry as a bear
• as tough as nails

• smells like a rose
• eats like a pig
• sings like an angel
• runs like a cheetah
• slept like a baby
• crying like a baby
• jumps like a frog

 A metaphor creates a relationship directly and leaves more to the imagination.

There is a simple method for checking whether a statement is a metaphor or not. If a statement passes all of the first three conditions, it's very likely a metaphor. Similes and idioms  can be verified using the fourth and fifth conditions:

    1 -  Is it figurative? Or, is this statement not literal?

E.g.: "Love is a flower."  Is love actually a flower? No. This statement is figurative, so it passes the first test.

E.g.: "The Internet is the information superhighway." Is it really a highway? No. This statement is figurative, so it also passes the first test.

E.g.: "Love is a feeling." Is it really a feeling? Yes. This statement is not figurative, so it fails the first test.

E.g.: The typist would hunt and peck for letters. Was the typist actually hunting, as if to kill, or pecking, as if to poke with a beak? No. The statement is figurative, and passes the first test.

2 -  Is it an equation? Are two components somehow being made equal?

E.g.: "Love is a flower."  Is love being made equal to a flower? Yes. The components are being treated as equal, so it passes the second test.

E.g.: "The Internet is the information superhighway." Is the Internet equated to a superhighway? Yes. The components are being treated as equal, so it passes the second test.

E.g.: "Love is a feeling." Is love being equated to a feeling? Yes. It is a direct statement of fact, and technically passes the second test.

E.g.: "The typist would hunt and peck for letters". Are there two halves being made equal? Yes. The typist and a feeding bird. This is an indirect (implied) metaphor, since one half of the equation is not seen, but one can infer it, since the actions of hunting and pecking are actions of a bird feeding. This passes the second test.

3 -  Can it expand metaphorically?

E.g.: "Love is a flower."  Love may grow, blossom, wither and die. This statement can expand, passing the third test. It also passed the first two tests, so it is a metaphor.

E.g.: "The Internet is the information superhighway." The Internet has traffic; and it may be slow or fast; the superhighway is paved with fiber optics - better pavement facilitates higher travel speeds. This statement also passes the third test, and passed the first two, it is a metaphor.

E.g.: "Love is a feeling." Like other feelings, love can increase or develop. However, these are literal descriptions of the word love, rather than metaphorical descriptions. It failed the first and third test - it is not a metaphor.

E.g.: The typist would hunt and peck for letters. The letters of the above typewriter are seeds; the typist may get ruffled feathers; the faster the typist feeds the fatter they will get (faster typists are paid more). This statement passes all three tests, so it is a metaphor.

         We can test the metaphors’ strength further by checking if the metaphors are reversible.        

            The stronger the metaphor, the more reversible it becomes. "That man is a dog"/"That dog is a man" doesn't reverse as sensibly as "This house is a box"/"This box is a house". This is because the comparative elements of man=dog are subject to personal opinion and implication, while the comparative elements of house=box can be seen with simple, universal geometry.

E.g.: "Love is a flower".  Could we say without much explanation "a flower is love"? Not really. This is a weak metaphor (a.k.a. poetic metaphor). "Love is a flower" works mainly because one has experienced the emotion, but it would take quite an effort to explain why a flower is love.

E.g.: "The Internet is the information superhighway." Could we easily explain why it is true that "a superhighway is the Internet for cars"? Yes. In fact the relationship is so strong that much of the language is interchangeable. This is a strong metaphor.

E.g.: The typist would hunt and peck for letters. Can one readily explain the reasoning behind the statement "the bird was seeking out and poking at seeds"? Naturally. The process itself involves identical concepts: to look; to poke; to have one of many specific, valuable points to poke at; to be successful as a result. This is a strong metaphor.

Other types of figurative language are often mistaken for metaphor, especially, as it was mentioned above, simile and idiom. Similes behave as if approximations of some quality and idioms give an old phrase the meaning of a single word (e.g. "long in the tooth" = old).

4 -  Is it a simile?

E.g.: "Love is like oxygen." Does the statement use "is like" or "is as"; or simply "is"? It uses "is like". This is a simile.

E.g.: "Love is a hunger." Does the statement use "is like" or "is as"; or simply "is"? It uses "is". This is not a simile, it is a metaphor.

5 -  Is it an idiom?

An idiom doesn't need to add up. It is a phrase that acts like a word. It defies translation because it has more to do with history than language. Idioms are acquired through the regular use of a phrase within a culture, and develop into a separate meaning, often at the loss of its original meaning altogether.

E.g.: "Her arguing tactics left him over a barrel." Was there a barrel? Was he over anything? No. While the American phrase "over a barrel" was once a reference to a specific practice, it eventually came to mean roughly "helpless", and has completely lost its original meaning. It would likely become gibberish if translated directly into another language, because its meaning is not the same as its words would suggest.

 Types of metaphors

There are 15 types of metaphors, each harboring its own linguistic treasure.

• An Absolute Metaphor

With an absolute metaphor, there is no relation between the subject and the metaphoric word itself. For instance, some people say, "Oh, no! I am toast." Of course, the person does not mean that they have been transformed into hot, dry bread. Rather this is a metaphor for the feeling of being in trouble. Other types of metaphors, non-absolute metaphors, have at least some relation between the subject and the metaphoric vehicle.

•  An Active Metaphor

An active metaphor is a type of metaphor often used in poetry and speeches to incite thought. While active metaphors may sometimes be mistaken for absolute metaphors, there is still some relation between the subject and descriptive words. Shakespeare, for example, has a famous active metaphor in "Romeo and Juliet," "Let me compare thee to a summer's day." While the metaphor may not appear directly connected at first, you can see how this phrase is used to compliment a woman on her warmth and beauty, thereby making the metaphor connected and non-absolute.

•  A Complex Metaphor

This type of metaphor takes a simple metaphor and adds to the complexity of it. Complex metaphors are often used in riddles, because when they are overly complex, it is easy to become confused as to what the intended meaning might be. For example, "He felt the steam rising" is used as a metaphor for growing angry. In this case, "steam" symbolizes the feeling of anger and "rising" represents how that feeling of anger grows. Another example is "throwing light on the situation," where "light" is used to symbolize understanding and "throwing" represents the application of said understanding to the situation at hand.

•  A Compound Metaphor

A compound metaphor is a type of metaphor that often uses adverbs and adjectives to entice the reader or listener. Also known as the loose metaphor, a compound metaphor uses descriptive words in succession. For instance, "The closet was a dark, gaping hole in which the mountain of his shoes had gathered" utilizes a compound metaphor to describe a closet.

• Dead, Dormant, and Dying Metaphors

A dead metaphor is a type of metaphor that is so outdated that the meaning has been lost in time. There are many words in the English language that are now considered dead metaphors. On such word is "fabulous," which once meant that whatever subject the word described must be worthy of a story or fable. Now it is used similarly to the word "great." A dormant metaphor is one in which the subject and descriptive word or words are not made clear in relations, such as the phrase, "She seemed rattled." This leads to the questions of "By what? Or whom?" A dying metaphor is one that is being used so much that it is becoming cliche. The original meanings of dying metaphors are in jeopardy of being lost. One example is the phrase, "Setting sail into a new career."

•  An Extended Metaphor

This type of metaphor takes a single subject and uses multiple metaphors to describe it. Extended metaphors are often used in powerful scenes or lines that are meant to be memorable. "This bed is my raft, and I am adrift in the sea of dreams," is one example of an extended metaphor. There is little confusion, but much embellishment.

• An Implicit Metaphor

An implicit metaphor does not identify the subject directly, but is used more in the sense that the subject will be understood by the description. An example of this type of metaphor would be, "Ready to hit the sack!" The implicit metaphor is similar to the dead and dying metaphors, but still lies within the range of common knowledge as far as descriptive subject matter goes.

• A Mixed Metaphor

This type of metaphor is not consistent with itself within the sentence. The statement, "A rolling stone gathers no bird in the hand," is a mixed metaphor in that it takes two metaphors to describe a concept, but leaves room for clarification. Mixed metaphors are often frowned upon in use, since they are not poetic, nor are they very thought provoking.

•  A Pataphor

A pataphor is a type of metaphor that takes the metaphoric qualities to the edge of clarity. It is an extreme metaphor and is often used to express excitement. One example of a pataphor is, "He galloped into the kitchen, snorted at the food on the table, turned his tail, and ran." The pataphor here describes a boy with the actions of a horse. If the metaphoric values are taken too far, though, it can be confusing as to whether the subject is actually a boy or an animal.

• A Simple Metaphor

This is a type of metaphor that has a single subject and direct correlation with the metaphoric description. The simple metaphor is rarely confusing and is used to convey simple ideas. One example of a simple metaphor is, "I'll sleep on it." There is no embellishment to this metaphor; the simple metaphor is straightforward.

•  A Root Metaphor

This is one type of metaphor that may be difficult to identify. The root metaphor is "rooted" into the language. These metaphors are mostly noted by foreigners to the region or language. For example, "Life is a journey," is a root metaphor is often overlooked by English natives. It is, however,  still a metaphor.

• A Submerged and Synechdochic Metaphor

The submerged metaphor is one in which the metaphoric vehicle is deep in meaning or requires a deeper understanding of the metaphoric meaning. One example of a submerged metaphor is, "He legged it," which really means he ran whatever distance there was. A synechdochic  metaphor, on the other hand, is where the singular metaphoric vehicle is used to describe a whole entity or concept. For example, "Nice wheels!" is a compliment to someone's car. These two types of metaphors are similar in application, but different in approach.

 The anatomy of metaphor differs to accommodate the feelings, emotions, concepts, or events that can be described to their fullest with the use of symbolism.

The 15 types of metaphors can be found everywhere from classic literature to everyday slang.

Conclusion

Well-known linguists George Lakoff and Mark Johnsen say, ” Metaphor is for most people a device of the poetic imagination and the theoretical flourish – a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language.  … We have found on the contrary, that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action … fundamentally metaphorical in nature.”

Understanding how metaphors work can help us write or speak English our way through either mundane or important events in an eloquent and intriguing manner, as well as understand the native speakers perfectly.

Reference list:

1. Lakoff G., Johnson M. Metaphors we live by.- London: University of Chicago Press, 2003.  
2. Элис Дейнан. Метафоры. Справочник по английскому языку. – М.: АСТ- Астрель, 2003.
3. Dictionary of contemporary English. – UK: Pearson.
4. Collocations dictionary. – UK: Macmillan.
5. http://www. en.wikipedia.org.metaphor/
6. http://www.grammar.about.com.metaphor-definitions/