Презентация на английском языке "Достижения в медицине 19 века"

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In the XIX century medicine became the final science. Continued its development of anatomy, physiology and other industries. Thanks to advances in diagnosis and treatment of many diseases almost forgotten. Indicators such as life expectancy and morbidity have improved significantly.

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With the beginning of the 19th century a number of new discoveries is multiplied so fast that they were already impossible to keep track of details. The interaction of biological and non-biological knowledge has opened up unprecedented prospects: new Sciences have emerged and developed rapidly .

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Scientific advances in medicine Anatomy and physiology as the Foundation of medicine in the 19th century quickly developed. H bell (1774-1842) highlighted the distinction between the sensitive and motor nerves, and M. Hall (1790-1857) opened the reflexes. In Germany, I. Muller (1801-1858) developed the classification of tumors by microscopic data, made a significant contribution to embryology and made physiology a separate discipline. Another specialist in microscopic anatomy, J. Genle (1809-1885), described in detail the structure of the whole body, opened the renal tubules and found that the body cavity is covered with epithelium ( mesothelium ). R. Virchow (1821-1902) applied the cell theory to the problem of the disease, establishing that it is the cell — the fundamental basis of the development of pathological processes. With the work of P. Brock (1824-1880) began the study of localization of brain functions. The great physicist Hermann Helmholtz (1821-1894) made important discoveries in the physiology of vision and hearing, invented the Ophthalmoscope. Justus Liebig (1803-1873) founded physiological chemistry. The anatomy of the XIX century for the development is almost consistent with the modern level. In this regard, the main research interest was focused on the study of pathological anatomy and histology (tissue anatomy). At that time, a large number of discoveries have been made to explain the occurrence of certain diseases and pathological changes occurring in the tissues.important discoveries in the physiology of vision and hearing, invented the Ophthalmoscope. Justus Liebig (1803-1873) founded physiological chemistry.

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In physiology actively studied the structure of individual structures of the brain, nervous arch, sensory organs, digestive and respiratory systems, heart and other mechanisms. The processes of transmission of nerve impulses, metabolism of many substances, experiments on the study of reflexes. Became widely used the method of experiments on animals. The theory of evolution of Charles Darwin contributed to the success of biology in many ways. The cellular theory of structure of living organisms is offered. The concept of genetics was born, its basic laws (Mendel's laws) were proposed.

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The greatest contribution to medicine of the 19th century was made by K. Bernard, Koch and Pasteur. It is noteworthy that all three were not clinicians, and research scientists. Pasteur didn't even have a medical degree. The laboratory is beginning to compete with the clinic. Robert Koch (1843-1910) discovered anthrax Bacillus, Vibrio cholerae and the tubercle Bacillus. His work, which showed that epidemic diseases such as cholera or typhoid can be combated by cleaning (filtering) water, heralded a new era in public health. He invented a transparent solid (agar) nutrient medium for the cultivation of pure bacterial cultures has contributed to the fight against the plague of cattle in North Africa, explored a tropical disease. A student of Koch Kitazato (1856-1931), who is called "Japanese Koch", identified the pathogens of tetanus and bubonic plague. Norwegian G. Hansen (1841-1912) discovered the leprosy Bacillus in 1874, G. Gaffky (1850-1918) — the Bacillus of typhoid fever, F. Loffler (1852-1915), the causative agents of glanders and diphtheria. Another pupil of Koch, E. von Behring (1854-1917) developed in 1890 the principle of serotherapy (using the serum); its diphtheria antitoxin has saved countless lives. A. Frankel (1848-1916) discovered pneumococci , W. Welsh (1850-1934) — the causative agent of gas gangrene. For centuries, even the best medical minds believed that gonorrhea and syphilis were identical. A. Neisser (1855-1916), opening gonococcus, convincingly proved that gonorrhea — an independent disease.

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The discovery of microbial infection led to another significant step-antiseptic. Along with anesthesia, antiseptics revolutionized surgery. Attempts to stifle suffering with opium, Mandrake, wine or Cannabis sativa (hashish, marijuana) date back to the earliest period of medical history. But these funds could not save from the acute pain associated with surgery. The first public operation under anesthesia (using ether) was carried out in the United States in October 1846. In England, Robert Liston used ether in December, 1846. Chloroform was introduced by J. Simpson (1811-1870) in November 1847. Anesthesia included in practice, scattering mortal terror before surgery. The introduction of anesthesia solved the problem of pain, but there was a problem of mortality associated with purulent (septic) infections during operations. Still alive was the idea that suppuration-a necessary process in the healing of wounds, it was called "glorious pus" and carried away more lives than the surgical knife itself. Surgeons ignored the most basic hygiene rules: they operated in everyday clothes, with unwashed hands, using dirty tools.

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In obstetrics, there was already some idea of the causes of infection. Maternity fever was a terrible disaster of maternity wards. In the 18th century a few surgeons insisted on strict hygiene, nurses and doctors, and the cleanliness of the premises. But it almost did not pay attention. In America, FR. Holmes (1809-1894) concluded that the pathoanatomic office was the main source of infection, and called on doctors to wash their hands and change their clothes before attending childbirth. But his innovation caused only dislike. Persecution and attacks expected also another pioneer of obstetric care, I. Semmelweis from Vienna (1818-1865). The mortality of women in labor in hospital wards, where students had practice, was much higher than in those wards where midwives were trained. Students come directly after pathology lessons, and Semmelweis , having concluded that puerperal fever was called "putrid particles" remaining in the hands of students, began to demand that they wash their hands in chlorine solution. The death rate of women in labor fell from 18 to 1%, but the rigid minds stubbornly resisted innovations. Semmelweis , who was forced to resign, was brought to a mental disorder.

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The fate of another antiseptic pioneer, Joseph Lister (1827-1912), who, unlike Semmelweis , was accompanied by honors and glory, was happier: he became Lord Lister, the first English doctor to be awarded the title of peer. Semmelweis could only assume the presence of "rotten particles" and move forward empirically. The great reform of Lister was based on a solid Foundation of Pasteur's most important discoveries. After studying the work of Pasteur, Lister came to the conclusion that the cause of suppuration (sepsis) of surgical wounds are microorganisms, and to combat them using carbolic acid. She was later replaced by the milder antiseptics. The wounds themselves and everything that came into contact with them, were now subjected to disinfection (disinfection); the air was cleaned by spraying carbolic acid. Aseptic clothing, surgical gloves and masks, autoclaves appeared much later, but the first important steps in this direction were made. The era of "glorious pus" was over, and surgery could go forward.

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Achievements of practical medicine In the early 19th century Corvisart introduced the technique of listening and percussion. Another important contribution to the diagnosis was made by the inventor of the stethoscope R. Laennec (1781-1826). These discoveries provided the development of cardiology and early diagnosis of diseases of the chest. In the 19th century, medical practice finally began to change. At this time, scientists and physicians have made discoveries that have become revolutionary in medicine. The improvement of the microscope made possible a more detailed study of tissues-an area that was called histology. This led to the emergence of a new science about cell – Cytology. Great strides have been made in the study of infectious diseases. Thanks to the improvement of microscopic technology, scientists "personally" saw their pathogens. Predisposing factors for the development of many diseases, mechanisms of their transmission, as well as prevention measures were identified. Diagnosis and treatment of most diseases has advanced significantly. The coup took place in surgery. So, some pathological conditions, previously considered hopeless, began to be treated successfully. Developed and narrow specialization: doctors finally stripped of therapists, surgeons, cardiologists, ophthalmologists, gynecologists and other professionals.

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With the growth of knowledge in anatomy, physiology and pathology, a new medical discipline — neurology-appeared and began to develop. The work of the brain and nervous system in a healthy and diseased body was studied by G. Duchenne (1806-1875), J. M. sharko (1825-1893), P. Marie (1853-1940), J. Babinsky (1857-1922), J.Jackson (1835-1911) and many others. Began the development of psychiatry, the field before overlooked. Madness was no longer seen as an obsession with the impure spirit. Mental illnesses were classified by E. Krepelin (1856-1926) and were studied in clinics and hospitals. Until the 19th century. psychiatric patients were kept as animals or criminals.

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The idea of psychoanalysis was put forward by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) in the late 19th century, but the recognition he received only in the 20th century, the same can be said about the other two discoveries of the late 19th century: x-rays and radium. The discovery of x-rays by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923) refers to 1895, and the discovery of radium by Pierre Curie (1859-1906) and his wife Maria sklodovskaya -Curie (1867-1934) — to 1898. But their use in medicine began only in the 20 century.

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The end of the 19th century is marked by another achievement — the victory over malaria, which was the cause of the decline of many ancient civilizations and for centuries devastated entire regions. The discovery of quinine helped to mitigate its destructive effect, but did not prevent it. Sh. Laveran (1845-1922) first discovered the malarial parasite in the blood of man in 1880, and in 1897 R. Ross (1857-1932) identified its vector — malaria mosquito, so that it was possible, systematically destroying mosquito larvae, to control the spread of the disease. The discovery of the causes of epidemic and infectious diseases could not but affect preventive medicine and public health. Draining of bogs, control of water supply, universal vaccination, the thought-over quarantine system served to improvement of health of the civilized world. Life expectancy has increased. The maternal and child mortality rates have been reduced as a result of antiseptics and improved obstetric and paediatric care.

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During the 19th century, many medical specialties emerged, such as endocrinology, immunology, chemotherapy; significant progress was also made in other branches of medicine, including ophthalmology and gynecology. The 19th century began in an atmosphere still full of superstitions, and by the end of the century his medicine had gained a solid scientific basis.