“MARDI GRAS CARNIVAL SEASON IN THE USA.FROM ITS ORIGIN UP TO NOWADAYS”

МУНИЦИПАЛЬНОЕ БЮДЖЕТНОЕ ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОЕ УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ СРЕДНЯЯ ОБЩЕОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНАЯ ШКОЛА

С УГЛУБЛЕННЫМ ИЗУЧЕНИЕМ ОТДЕЛЬНЫХ ПРЕДМЕТОВ №103

 НИЖЕГОРОДСКОГО РАЙОНА ГОРОДА НИЖНЕГО НОВГОРОДА

“MARDI GRAS CARNIVAL SEASON

IN THE USA.FROM ITS ORIGIN UP TO

NOWADAYS”

                                                                         Выполнила: ученица 10 класса «А»

                                                               Сидорова Ольга Михайловна

                                                       Научный руководитель:

                                                                        Хуснуллина Марина Анатольевна

                                                            Учитель английского языка

Нижний Новгород, 2014 г.

Contents

Introduction                                                                                                              3

1. Mardi Gras in Europe……………………………………………………...4

1. Prehistory of the holiday…………………………………………….....4
2. Etymology of the word “carnival”……………………………………..5
3. From the history of the first carnivals in the world………………….....6
4. Mardi Gras “Carnival season”……………………………………….....7
5. Mardi Gras in some European countries…………………………….....7

2. Mardi Gras in USA………………………………………………………...9

6. The history of the Mardi Gras carnivals……………………………….9

3. New Orleans Mardi Gras………………………………………………...13

7. The origin of the tradition ……………………………………………13
8. Contemporary Mardi Gras…………………………………………....14
9. Social clubs ( krewes)………………………………………………...16
10. Rex History and Traditions………………………………………..….18
11.  Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club………………………………..…...20
12. The attributes of the carnival (colours, costumes, beads and etc……..22

4. Mardi Gras now…………………………………………………....……..26

13. Weekend before New Orleans Mardi Gras………………….………..26
14.  Lundi Gras………………………………………………...………….26
15.  Mardi Gras day………………………………………….……………26
16. Ash Wednesday……………………………………….………………27

Conclusion                                                                                                             28

Literature                                                                                                               30

Introduction

So many countries so many customs, an English proverb says. The combination of the words tradition and custom means a usual manner of doing something, a belief of principal, of conduct passed on from generation to generation. A great number of traditions date back to the early days of the USA and we can justly say that they are the reflection of the country’s history and the people’s psychology. To know the customs and traditions means to understand the people, their art and culture better.

The theme of my work is “Mardi Gras Carnival Season. From its origin up to nowadays”.

I have been learning English for five years and I know much about the USA, its rich history, a varied cultural heritage, long-lived customs and traditions, great events which make the image of the USA fascinating and exciting. But Mardi Gras Carnival Season has always drawn my special attention. It impressed me by its brightness, beauty, originality.

The aim of my work is to study the history of the carnival season and Mardi Gras as its culmination day, that dates back thousands of years to pagan celebrations of spring and fertility. Working at the report I’ve set the task to get acquainted with some traditions, origin and attributes of this wonderful event and finally to answer the question why it has remained to be so popular for many years.

1 Mardi Gras in Europe

1. Prehistory of the holiday

The Lenten period of the Liturgical year Church calendar, being the six weeks directly before Easter, was marked by fasting and other pious or penitential practices. Traditionally during Lent, no parties or other celebrations were held, and people refrained from eating rich foods, such as meat, dairy, fats and sugar. The forty days of Lent, recalling the Gospel accounts of the forty days that Jesus spent in the wilderness, serve to mark an annual time of turning. In the days before Lent, all rich food and drink had to be disposed of. The consumption of this, in a giant party that involved the whole community, is thought to be the origin of Carnival.

While it forms an integral part of the Christian calendar, particularly in Catholic regions, some carnival traditions may date back to pre-Christian times. The ancient Roman festivals of Saturnalia and Bacchanalia may possibly have been absorbed into the Italian Carnival. The Saturnalia, in turn, may be based on the Greek Dionysia and Oriental festivals. While medieval pageants and festivals such as Corpus Christi were church-sanctioned celebrations, carnival was also a manifestation of medieval folk culture. Many local carnival customs are based on local pre-Christian rituals, for example the elaborate rites involving masked figures in the Swabian–Alemannic Fastnacht.

Some of the best-known traditions, including carnival parade sand masquerade ball masquerading, were first recorded in medieval Italy. The carnival of Venice was for a long time the most famous carnival. From Italy, carnival traditions spread to the Catholic nations of Spain, Portugal, and France. From France, they spread to the Rhineland of Germany, and to New France in North America. From Spain and Portugal, they spread with Catholic colonization to the Caribbean and Latin America. In 1823 the first worldwide carnival parade took place in Cologne, Germany.

Other areas have developed their own traditions. In the United Kingdom, West Indian immigrants brought with them the traditions of Caribbean Carnival, however the Carnivals now celebrated at Notting Hill, London; Leeds, Yorkshire, and other places have become divorced from their cycle in the religious year, becoming purely secular events, that take place in the summer months.

Most colorful and biggest carnival takes place in New Orleans.

2. Etymology of the word “carnival”

The origin of the name "Carnival" is disputed, between those that argue a link with the Italian word "carne" (meat), and those that argue a link with the word "carrus" (car). The link with carne would suggest an origin within Christianity, while the link with carro with earlier religions.

From carne levare

Those that argue for the origin from "carne", point to variants in Italian dialects that would suggest that the name comes from the Italian carne levare or similar, meaning "to remove meat", since meat is prohibited during Lent.

From carne vale

Folk etymologies exist which state that the word comes from the Late Latin expression carne vale, which means "farewell to meat", signifying that those were the last days when one could eat meat before the fasting of Lent. The word carne may also be translated as flesh, so suggesting carne vale as "a farewell to the flesh", a phrase actually embraced by certain Carnival celebrants who encourage letting go of your former (or everyday) self and embracing the carefree nature of the festival. However, explanations proceeding from carne vale seem to be folk etymologies and are not supported by philological evidence.

From carrus navalis

Other scholars argue for the origin from the Roman name for the festival of the Navigium Isidis (ship of Isis), where the image of Isis was carried to the sea-shore to bless the start of the sailing season. The festival consisted of a parade of masks following an adorned wooden boat, that would reflect the floats of modern Carnivals. Modern Carnival shares resemblances with the Navigium Isidis.

1.3From the history of the first carnival in the world

Few people know the history of the Venetian carnival, carnivals and yet in their present form emerged in medieval Venice, and from it has gradually spreading to other cities in Europe, and then around the world have given life to all known carnivals in the world.

And the story itself begins carnivals since the days of ancient Rome. First carnival was held during the annual festival in honor of Saturn which is celebrated after the harvest during the winter solstice.

Hence the origin of lead and carnival masks - during Saturnalia should do everything topsy-turvy.

Differences between masters and slaves were abolished. Slaves became masters, gentlemen - slaves. With the advent of Christianity carnival traditions were long forgotten. Holiday revived centuries later with the beginning of the Renaissance. Medieval carnivals began their parade of Venice, reaching in the form to the present day.

Carnival is celebrated annually in February. It lasts 10 days. During this period in ancient Venetian palaces arranged masquerade ball.

In Venice carnival masks become so popular that they were worn on ordinary days, often hiding behind the masks for the killings. Therefore, the church permitted use of the Venetian carnival masks only for their intended purpose, that is to wear them only during the actual carnival.

And in 1608 in Venice issued a decree, according to which men for wearing masks in daily life were sentenced to two years' imprisonment and a fine, and women publicly flogged in the square rods.

During the Carnival, nothing seemed too shameful, too daring, too reckless, too lewd. Carnival has been an outlet for people who lived under strict religious taboos.

Carnival opens old Venetian holiday - Festadelle Marie, which is dedicated to the liberation of Venetian girls abducted by pirates from Istria.

St. Mark's Square arranged presentation, and then descend on the audience tons of confetti. Then begins the carnival procession.

1.4Mardi Gras “Carnival season”

"Mardi Gras" , "Mardi Gras season", "'Fat Tuesday'" and "Carnival season", in English, refer to events of the Carnival celebrations, beginning on or after the Epiphany or Kings day and culminating on the day before Ash Wednesday. Mardi Gras is French for Fat Tuesday, referring to the practice of the last night of eating richer, fatty foods before the ritual fasting of the Lenten season, which begins on Ash Wednesday. The day is sometimes referred to as Shrove Tuesday, from the word shrive, meaning "confess." Related popular practices are associated with celebrations before the fasting and religious obligations associated with the penitential season of Lent.

1.5Mardi Gras in some European countries

Mardi Gras Carnival season spread to many European countries.

Belgium

In the Belgian city of Binche the Mardi Gras festival is one of the most important days of the year and the summit of the Carnival of Binche. Around 1000 Gilles dance throughout the city from morning until past dusk, whilst traditional carnival songs play. In 2003, the "Carnival of Binche" was proclaimed one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.

Germany

The celebration of Mardi Gras in Germany is called Karneval, Fastnacht, or Fasching, depending on the region. Fastnacht means "Eve of the Fast", but all three terms cover the whole carnival season with famous parades held in Cologne, Mainz, and Düsseldorf on the Monday before Ash Wednesday, called Rosenmontag (Rose Monday). The traditional start of Fasching is November 11th at 11:11 in the morning.

Italy

In Italy Mardi Gras is called Martedí Grasso (Fat Tuesday). It's the main day of Carnival along with the Thursday before, called Giovedí Grasso (Fat Thursday), which ratifies the start of the celebrations. The most famous Carnivals in Italy are in Venice, Viareggio and Ivrea. Ivrea has the characteristic "Battle of Oranges" that finds its roots in medieval times. Italy is the birthplace of Carnival celebrations, having its origins in the ancient Roman festival of Saturnalia. The Italian version of the festival is spelled Carnevale.

Netherlands

The Netherlands also has a festival similar to Mardi Gras. It's called Carnaval and is similar to the Venice Carnival. The origin of the word Carnaval is 'Carne Vale' which means "Goodbye to the meat" in Latin. It marks the beginning of lent leading up to Easter.

The carnival in the Netherlands is mainly held in the southern part of the Netherlands in the provinces of Noord-Brabant and Limburg, some parts of Zeeland and in eastern parts of Twente and Gelderland. As with many popular festivals, people tend to loosen some moral codes and become laid-back or loose, which is based in the ancient role-reversal origins of Carnaval, including dressing in costumes.

Sweden

In Sweden the celebration is called Fastan, when you eat fastlagsbulle, also called Fettisdagsbulle . That name comes from the words "fett" (fat) and "tisdag" (Tuesday). Originally, this was the only day one should eat faslagsbullar.

2. Mardi Gras in the USA

2. 1The history of the Mardi Gras carnivals

Shrove Tuesday is a day to be remembered by strangers in New Orleans, for that is the day for fun, frolic, and comic masquerading. All of the mischief of the city is alive and wide awake in active operation. Men and boys, women and girls, bond and free, white and black, yellow and brown, exert themselves to invent and appear in grotesque, quizzical, diabolic, horrible, strange masks, and disguises. Human bodies are seen with heads of beasts and birds, beasts and birds with human heads; demi-beasts, demi-fishes, snakes' heads and bodies with arms of apes; man-bats from the moon; mermaids; satyrs, beggars, monks, and robbers parade and march on foot, on horseback, in wagons, carts, coaches, cars, &c., in rich confusion, up and down the streets, wildly shouting, singing, laughing, drumming, fiddling, fifeing, and all throwing flour broadcast as they wend their reckless way.

In 1856 six Creole businessmen gathered at a club room in New Orleans’ French Quarter to organize a secret society to observe Mardi Gras with a formal parade. They founded New Orleans' first and oldest krewe, the Mystick Krewe of Comus. According to one historian, "Comus was aggressively English in its celebration of what New Orleans had always considered a French festival. It is hard to think of a clearer assertion than this parade that the lead in the holiday had passed from French-speakers to Anglo-Americans. To a certain extent, Americans 'Americanized' New Orleans and its Creoles. To a certain extent, New Orleans 'creolized' the Americans. Thus the wonder of Anglo-Americans boasting of how their business prowess helped them construct a more elaborate version than was traditional. The lead in organized Carnival passed from Creole to American just as political and economic power did over the course of the nineteenth century. The spectacle of Creole-American Carnival, with Americans using Carnival forms to compete with Creoles in the ballrooms and on the streets, represents the creation of a New Orleans culture neither entirely Creole nor entirely American."

In 1875 Louisiana declared Mardi Gras a legal state holiday. War, economic, political, and weather conditions sometimes led to cancellation of some or all major parades, especially during the American Civil War, World War I and World War II, but the city has always celebrated Carnival.

1972 was the last year in which large parades went through the narrow streets of the city's French Quarter section; larger floats, crowds, and fire safety concerns led the city government to prohibit parades in the Quarter. Major parades now skirt the French Quarter along Canal Street.

In 1979 the New Orleans police department went on strike. The official parades were canceled or moved to surrounding communities, such as Jefferson Parish. Significantly fewer tourists than usual came to the city. Masking, costuming, and celebrations continued anyway, with National Guard troops maintaining order. Guardsmen prevented crimes against persons or property but made no attempt to enforce laws regulating morality or drug use; for these reasons, some in the French Quarter bohemian community recall 1979 as the city's best Mardi Gras ever.

In 1991 the New Orleans City Council passed an ordinance that required social organizations, including Mardi Gras Krewes, to certify publicly that they did not discriminate on the basis of race, religion, gender or sexual orientation, to obtain parade permits and other public licenses. Shortly after the law was passed, the city demanded that these krewes provide them with membership lists, contrary to the long-standing traditions of secrecy and the distinctly private nature of these groups. In protest -- and because the city claimed the parade gave it jurisdiction to demand otherwise-private membership lists -- the 19th-century krewes Comus and Momus stopped parading. Proteus did parade in the 1992 Carnival season but also suspended its parade for a time, returning to the parade schedule in 2000.

Several organizations brought suit against the city, challenging the law as unconstitutional. Two federal courts later declared that the ordinance was an unconstitutional infringement on First Amendment rights of free association, and an unwarranted intrusion on the privacy of the groups subject to the ordinance. The US Supreme Court refused to hear the city's appeal from this decision.

Today, New Orleans krewes operate under a business structure; membership is open to anyone who pays dues, and any member can have a place on a parade float.

The devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina in late 2005 caused a few people to question the future of the city's Mardi Gras celebrations. Mayor Nagin, who was up for reelection in early 2006, tried to play this sentiment for electoral advantage. However, the economics of Carnival were, and are, too important to the city's revival.

The city government, essentially bankrupt after Hurricane Katrina, pushed for a scaled back celebration to limit strains on city services. However, many krewes insisted that they wanted to and would be ready to parade, so negotiations between krewe leaders and city officials resulted in a compromise schedule. It was scaled back but less severely than originally suggested.

The 2006 New Orleans Carnival schedule included the Krewe du Vieux on its traditional route through Marigny and the French Quarter on February 11, the Saturday two weekends before Mardi Gras. There were several parades on Saturday, February 18, and Sunday the 19th a week before Mardi Gras. Parades followed daily from Thursday night through Mardi Gras Day. Other than Krewe du Vieux and two Westbank parades going through Algiers, all New Orleans parades were restricted to the Saint Charles Avenue Uptown to Canal Street route, a section of the city which escaped significant flooding. Some krewes unsuccessfully pushed to parade on their traditional Mid-City route, despite the severe flood damage suffered by that neighborhood.

The city restricted how long parades could be on the street and how late at night they could end. National Guard troops assisted with crowd control for the first time since 1979. Louisiana State troopers also assisted, as they have many times in the past. Many floats had been partially submerged in floodwaters for weeks. While some krewes repaired and removed all traces of these effects, others incorporated flood lines and other damage into the designs of the floats.

Most of the locals who worked on the floats and rode on them were significantly affected by the storm's aftermath. Many had lost most or all of their possessions, but enthusiasm for Carnival was even more intense as an affirmation of life. The themes of many costumes and floats had more barbed satire than usual, with commentary on the trials and tribulations of living in the devastated city. References included MREs, Katrina refrigerators and FEMA trailers, along with much mocking of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and local and national politicians.

By the 2009 season, the Endymion parade had returned to the Mid-City route, and other Krewes expanding their parades Uptown.

3. New Orleans Mardi Gras

1. The origin of the tradition

While not observed nationally throughout the United States, a number of traditionally ethnic French cities and regions in the country have notable celebrations. Mardi Gras arrived in North America as a French Catholic tradition with the Le Moyne brothers, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville and Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, in the late 17th century, when King Louis XIV sent the pair to defend France's claim on the territory of Louisiana, which included what are now the U.S. states of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana.

The expedition, led by Iberville, entered the mouth of the Mississippi River on the evening of March 2, 1699, Lundi Gras. They did not yet know it was the river explored and claimed for France by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle in 1683. The party proceeded upstream to a place on the west bank about 60 miles downriver from where New Orleans is today, and made camp. This was on March 3, 1699, Mardi Gras, so in honor of this holiday, Iberville named the spot Point du Mardi Gras (French: "Mardi Gras Point") and called the nearby tributary Bayou Mardi Gras. Bienville went on to found the settlement of Mobile, Alabama in 1702 as the first capital of French Louisiana. In 1703 French settlers in Mobile established the first organized Mardi Gras celebration tradition in what was to become the United States. The first informal mystic society, or krewe, was formed in Mobile in 1711, the Boeuf Gras Society. By 1720, Biloxi had been made capital of Louisiana. The French Mardi Gras customs had accompanied the colonists who settled there.

In 1723, the capital of Louisiana was moved to New Orleans, founded in 1718. Mobile's Cowbellion de Rakin Society was the first formally organized and masked mystic society in the United States to celebrate with a parade in 1830. The idea of mystic societies was exported to New Orleans in 1856 when six businessmen, three who were formerly of Mobile, gathered at a club room in New Orlean's French Quarter to organize a secret society, inspired by the Cowbellion de Rakin Society, that would observe Mardi Gras with a formal parade. They founded New Orleans' first and oldest krewe, the Mistick Krewe of Comus. The tradition in New Orleans expanded to the point that it became synonymous with the city in popular perception, and embraced by residents of New Orleans beyond those of French or Catholic heritage. Mardi Gras celebrations are part of the basis of the slogan, Laissez les bons temps rouler, (Let the good times roll) and the nickname "Big Easy". Other cities along the Gulf Coast with early French colonial heritage, from Pensacola, Florida to Lafayette, Louisiana, have active Mardi Gras celebrations in balls. In the rural Acadiana area, many Cajuns celebrate with the Courir de Mardi Gras, a tradition that dates to medieval celebrations in France.

In the last decade of the 20th century, the rise in producing commercial videotapes catering to voyeurs helped encourage a tradition of women baring breasts in exchange for beads and trinkets.

3.2Contemporary Mardi Gras

The Mardi Gras season of galas begins about two weeks before Fat Tuesday. During those two weeks, parades can be viewed nightly and on weekends. Almost all businesses are closed for Lundi Gras (Fat Monday) and for Mardi Gras itself. Visitors from all over the world throng the city of New Orleans to enjoy this extravagant holiday.

The festivities which open officially on Epiphany with the Twelfth Night (Jan 6) Reveler's Ball, come to a close with the final ball on Mardi Gras night. Both the Rex Association and the Comus Krewe have their balls late night. The dancing in the royal courtroom set up starts with the song that has become the trademark of the Mardi Gras, "If Ever I Cease to Love."

At midnight, Rex and his queen appear at the Comus Ball and the royalty toast each other. There is dancing until dawn; but elsewhere in the city the crowds melt away earlier and the streets wear deserted look.

Parades: 

However, the parade is the main attraction of the New Orleans Mardi Gras and precedes the balls. The entire Bourbon Street is dedicated to the parades and has a worldwide fame. Each of the organizations picks a king and a queen for its parade. These parades comprise floats, dancers and bands. Most parades have at least 15 floats. The elaborate procession of floats, decorated to depict different themes, are pulled by tractors.

The Rex parade is the highlight of the day. Saluting his queen who sits in the reviewing stand in front of the Boston Club, Rex is toasted by the mayor. Manned by his glittering, masked knights the Rex parade then slowly winds its way through the narrow streets of the Vieusx Carré. The press of people is tremendous. There are simply too many to be contained along the sidewalks. And they come spilled over the streets making the streets crowded. But no problem no one around is busy as all businesses remain closed on the day. And the festive revelry floods the whole city.

As the parade with its costumed figures on the floats crawls its way through the crowded streets, viewers alongside shout with the traditional Mardi Gras cry: "Throw me something mistuh!" Strings of beads, doubloons, cups and trinkets are thrown into the air. Beads are of plastic and come in all different colors, shapes and sizes. They resemble jewels that royalty would wear. Doubloons are metal coins that are about the size of a silver dollar. They come in different colors and are stamped with the krewes' emblem and their theme for the year. Similar to doubloons, cups bear the krewes emblem and theme for the year. Trinkets might be anything from a candy, to stuffed toys, and knickknacks of every description.

They are almost worthless, but a stranger would never know it judging by the enthusiasm with which they are received and fought for. The floats, the dancers and the marching units with the innumerable bands apart, the city on Mardi Gras is thronged with ordinary citizens who for the day have become quite extraordinary. With costumes of all colors and varieties the children and the grown-ups alike become circus clowns or fabulous beasts or live comic-strip characters. Some groups may also cavort according to their whim as harem beauties or Indians or famous Americans. 

In the opinion of many, the real Mardi Gras resides as much in the efforts of such people as in the impressive parades.

3.3Social clubs (krewes)

“Krewe” is a variation of the word “crew”. Most of the carnival organizations are private and non-profit. They are known as krewes. The word was invented with a little creative spelling in 1857 by the first New Orleans carnival organization. The founders of the Mistick Krewe of Comus named their group for a reference to “Comus with his crew” from John Milton’s poem  “A Mask Presented at Ludlow-Castle”.

New Orleans Social clubs play a very large part in the Mardi Gras celebration as hosts of many of the parades on or around Mardi Gras Day. The two main Mardi Gras Day parades, Zulu and Rex, are both social club parades. Zulu is a mostly African-American club and Rex is mostly Caucasian. Social clubs host Mardi Gras balls, starting in late January. At these social balls, the queen of the parade (usually a young woman between the ages of 18 and 21, not married and in high school or college) and the king (an older male member of the club) present themselves and their court of maids (young women aged 16 to 18), and different divisions of younger children with small roles in the ball and parade, such as a theme-bearer.

In response to their exclusion from Rex, in 1909 Créole and black New Orleanians, led by a mutual aid group known as "The Tramps", adorned William Storey with a tin can crown and banana stalk scepter and named him King Zulu. This display was meant as a mockery of Rex's overstated pageantry, but in time, Zulu became a grand parade in its own right. By 1949, as an indication of Zulu's increase in prestige, the krewe named New Orleans' native son Louis Armstrong as its king.

Being a member of the court requires much preparation, usually months ahead. Women and girls must have dress fittings as early as the May before the parade, as the season of social balls allows little time between each parade. These balls are generally by invitation only. Balls are held at a variety of venues in the city, large and small, depending on the size and budget of the organization. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the French Opera House was a leading venue for New Orleans balls. From the mid-20th century until Hurricane Katrina the Municipal Auditorim was the city's most famous site for Carnival balls. In more recent years, most are at the ballrooms of various hotels throughout the city. The largest "Super Krewes" use larger venues; Bacchus the Morial Convention Center and Endymion the Superdome.

So, there are two large krewes, such as Rex and Zulu.

Small krewes

There are dozens of small neighborhood krewes and walking clubs. Events better known to locals than visitors include:

Before Mardi Gras Day

Krewe of OAK - the Friday night before Mardi Gras Day in the Carrollton neighborhood, starting and ending at the Maple Leaf Bar.

Krewe of Dreux - one of the largest alternative Mardi Gras celebrations, out in Gentilly on the Saturday afternoon before Mardi Gras. Daytime party in People's Park followed by a parade around Gentilly; come to participate, not just observe.

Red Beans & Rice Parade rolls through the Marigny and Treme on Lundi Gras (the Monday before Mardi Gras Day).

Mardi Gras Day

Mardi Gras Indians - More than a dozen "tribes" of "Mardi Gras Indians" rove the streets starting early Mardi Gras morning. In a tradition dating back some 150 years or more, the "Indians" (most are actually of African-American ancestry) wear dazzling elaborate costumes covered with feathers and beads in styles combining Native American, African, and contemporary New Orleans influences. Routes are not announced to the public if they are set in advance at all. Central City and Treme are especially rich with tribes. Claiborne Avenue or St. Claude Street in Tremeare popular places to catch the "Indians", but if you're lucky you might encounter them earlier on neighborhood back streets.

Krewe of Kosmic Debris - one of the most informal krewes; if you play a portable musical instrument you can show up in costume and jam on Dixieland standards as the Kosmic Debris roams from bar to bar in the French Quarter, starting on Frenchmen Street at noon Mardi Gras Day.

KOE - the first of the walking krewes organized on the Internet. Found in the Quarter on Mardi Gras, originally "Krewe of Elvis"

Pete Fountain's Half Fast Marching Club headed by the city's most famous Dixieland clarinetist who leads his band on a small float, the Half Fast wind through uptown down to the Quarter on Mardi Gras.

Mondo Kayo has a tongue-in-cheek tropical/Caribbean theme to celebrate New Orleans as the northernmost "Banana Republic". Starting Uptown, they go down St. Charles Avenue before Zulu, then continue into the French Quarter before winding up on Frenchmen Street in Marigny.

3.4 Rex History and Traditions

Rex has reigned as King of Carnival since he first appeared on Mardi Gras in 1872. Seven generations of New Orleanians and millions of visitors have hailed his majesty and reveled in the glorious traditions of his rule – including the jewel in Rex’s crown: his annual glittering procession of floats on Mardi Gras morning, led by his captain and lieutenants on horseback.

Rex entered the picture in 1872. New Orleans was struggling to recover from the lingering effects of the civil war, and divisions and isolation prevailed. At the same time, many city leaders saw the need to bring some order to the chaotic street parades of Mardi Gras day. The news that Russia's Grand Duke Alexis Romanoff would visit Mardi Gras and New Orleans provided another impetus to add order and brilliance to the day. This portrait shows the Grand Duke as a dashing young man, about the time he made his visit to New Orleans.

The group of young men who founded the Rex Organization hoped not only to entertain the Grand Duke, but also to create a daytime parade that would be attractive and fun for the citizens of the city and their guests. True to the Rex motto, "Pro Bono Publico—for the public good," they succeeded beyond their hopes. They selected one of their members, Lewis J. Solomon, to be the first Rex, King of Carnival. Before he could begin his reign he had to borrow a crown, scepter, and costume from an actor who happened to be performing in town at the time.

The first Rex Parade bore little resemblance to the Rex Processions of later years. Rex rode a horse, not a float. The parade that followed was made up largely of the informal maskers and marchers who were on the streets anyway. The 1873 Rex Procession was better organized and far more grand, beginning a long tradition of colorful and creative parades illustrating a theme selected from the worlds of literature or mythology.

In 1873 Rex held its first ball, and selected the first Queen of Carnival. Carnival balls traditionally were formal and very private affairs, with elegant decorations, tableaux presentations, and with dancing limited to the masked and costumed members and their guests.

The Rex Ball, in keeping with the organization's more public role, was not a masked ball, but rather a formal presentation of Carnival Royalty, followed by grand marches and general dancing. This tradition continues to this day. Elaborate ball invitations were created each year, and have become sought-after and valuable remembrances, another tradition that continues today.

The royal colors of purple, green, and gold have been used since Rex's founding, but the original symbolism intended was never made clear. It would make sense that purple, associated with royalty, and gold, the metal of choice for crowns and scepters, would be chosen, and various rules of heraldry may have been applied. The 1892 Rex Parade's theme, "The Symbolism of Colors," suggested that purple, green, and gold symbolized justice, faith, and power, respectively. The Rex flag displays these colors, arrayed diagonally, with a crown in the center field, and is flown during Carnival season at the homes of past Kings and Queens of Carnival.

Other traditions developed, including Rex's arrival in his Kingdom by boat on the Monday before Mardi Gras. Accompanied by costumed officials, Rex would step grandly from his decorated ship to be conveyed in a grand carriage to City Hall. There city leaders surrendered the keys of the city to the new sovereign of this fanciful and temporary realm.

Rex's reign as "King of Carnival" had begun. The Rex Organization, incorporated as "The School of Design," went to work to achieve the twin goals of presenting a grand daytime procession as the highlight of Mardi Gras day, and to encourage visitors to come to New Orleans to enjoy the celebration. In subsequent years, and to this day, Rex has issued his Official Proclamation of Carnival, and invited his subjects to gather in his "Capital City" to celebrate.

Rex's proclamations and invitations found their way to railroad stations and other public places in faraway cities, and had the desired effect. Mardi Gras in New Orleans helped to heal and strengthen the city almost a century and a half ago, and continues to be a major component of New Orleans' economy.

Visitors have come to New Orleans and enjoyed Mardi Gras year after year, and many new parading organizations have taken to the streets in a Carnival season that now stretches over two weeks. But the culmination of the celebration is still Mardi Gras day, when Rex climbs onto his float and greets his subjects as his Procession passes through the streets of his kingdom.

3.5Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club

Early in 1909, a group of laborers, who had organized a club named "The Tramps," went to the Pythian Temple Theater to see a musical comedy performed by the Smart Set. The comedy included a skit entitled "There Never Was and Never Will Be a King Like Me," about the Zulu Tribe. That is how the Zulus began, as many stories go. Years of extensive research by the Historian Committee seem to indicate that Zulu's beginning was much more complicated than that.

The earliest signs of organization came from the fact that most of these men belonged to a benevolent aid society. Benevolent societies were the first forms of insurance in the community, where for a small amount of dues, members received financial help when sick or burying deceased members. Conversations with older members also indicated that in that era each of the city's wards had its own group or "club." The Tramps were one such group. After seeing the skit, they retired to their meeting place, a room in the rear of a restaurant/bar in the 1100 block of Perdido Street, and emerged as the Zulus. The group was probably made up of members from the Tramps, the Benevolent Society and other ward-based groups.

While the "group" marched in Mardi Gras as early as 1901, their first appearance as the Zulus came in 1909, with William Story as king. The group wore raggedy pants and had a Jubilee singing quartet in front of and behind King Story. His costume of "lard can" crown and "banana stalk" scepter has been well documented.

The kings following William Story (William Crawford -1910, Peter Williams 1912, and Henry Harris-1914) were similarly attired. 1915 heralded the first use of floats, constructed on a spring wagon, using dry goods boxes. The float was decorated with palmetto leaves and moss and carried four dukes along with the king. That humble beginning gave rise to the lavish floats we see in the Zulu parade today.

On September 20, 1916, in the notarial office of Gabriel Fernandez, the Zulu Social Aid Club was incorporated. Twenty-two of the organization's officers and members signed that first official document.

It's been written that the early Zulus were a parody on the staid white celebration of Mardi Gras. Whether true or not, the Zulus did march to their own drum beat. Originally, they had members dress as females to serve as queen; later, female impersonators "reigned" as queens; finally they began having women as queens. Their queens were, and still are, toasted in front of Geddes, Moss and Willis Funeral Home. There was no macabre intent meant by this tradition. The Geddes, Moss and Willis Funeral Home played an integral part in Zulu's beginning and has continued to do so throughout the years.

Zulus were not without their controversies either. In the 1960s during the height of black awareness, it was unpopular to be a Zulu. Dressing in a grass skirt and putting on a black face were seen as demeaning. Large numbers of black organizations protested against Zulu and membership dwindled to approximately 16 men. James Russel, a longtime member, served as president in this period and is credited with holding the group together and slowly bringing Zulu back to the forefront.

In 1968, Zulu's route took them to St. Charles and Canal Streets for the first time in the modern era. Heretofore, to see the Zulu parade, you had to travel the so-called "back streets" of the black neighborhoods. The segregation laws of the period contributed to this, and Zulu tradition also played a part. In those days, neighborhood bars sponsored certain floats and, consequently, the floats were obligated to pass those bars. Passing meant stopping, as the bard advertised that the "Zulus will stop here." Once stopped at a sponsoring bars, it was often difficult to get the riders out of the establishment, so the other floats took off in different directions to fulfill their obligations.

Of all the throws to rain down from the many floats in the parades during Carnival, the Zulu coconut or "golden nugget" is the most sought after. The earliest reference to the coconut appears to be about 1910 when the coconuts were given from the floats in their natural "hairy" state. Some years later there is a reference to Lucas, "the sign painter," scraping and painting the coconuts. This, in all likelihood was the forerunner to the beautifully decorated coconuts we see today. Just as everything else in Zulu history, the coconut is not without controversy. With the proliferation of law suits from people alleging injury from thrown coconuts, the organization was unable to get insurance coverage in 1987. So that year, the time honored tradition was suspended. After much lobbying, the Louisiana Legislature passed B188, aptly dubbed the "coconut bill," which excluded the coconut from liability for alleged injuries arising from the coconuts handed from the floats. On July 8, 1988, then governor Edwards signed the bill into law.

Through the adversity, the Zulu organization has persevered. It has risen to the point of being not only the premier black social organization, but is known internationally as one of the major Carnival organizations. Zulu also integrates itself into the community, from adopting public schools and providing scholarships for Southern University to providing food baskets to needy families during the holiday seasons.

3.6The attributes of the carnival (colours, costumes, beads and etc)

Colours

The traditional colours of New Orleans Mardi Gras are purple, green, and gold. All three colors were used by the Catholic Church throughout history and thus continued to be used in relation to Mardi Gras which was Catholic in origin.

In his book "Krewe: The Early New Orleans Carnival: Comus to Zulu," Errol Laborde shows the above mentioned meanings of the Mardi Gras colors to be false. He gives a much simpler origin, having to do primarily with looking good.

Costumes and masks

In New Orleans, costumes and masks are seldom publicly worn by non-Krewe members on the days before Fat Tuesday (other than at parties), but are frequently worn on Mardi Gras Day. Laws against concealing one's identity with a mask are suspended for the day. Banks are closed, and some businesses and other places with security concerns (such as convenience stores) post signs asking people to remove their masks before entering.

Beads and toys

Inexpensive strings of beads and toys have been thrown from floats to parade-goers since at least the late 19th century. Until the 1960s, the most common form was multi-colored strings of glass beads made in Czechoslovakia. These were supplanted by less expensive and more durable plastic beads, first from Hong Kong, then from Taiwan, and more recently from China. Lower-cost beads and toys allow riders to purchase greater quantities and throws have become more numerous and common.

In the 1990s, many people lost interest in small, cheap beads, often leaving them where they landed on the ground. Larger, more elaborate metallic beads and strands with figures of animals, people, or other objects have become the sought-after throws. David Redmon's 2005 film of cultural and economic globalization, Mardi Gras: Made in China, follows the production and distribution of beads from a small factory in Fuzhou, China to the streets of New Orleans during Carnival.

With the advent of the 21st century, more sophisticated throws began to replace simple metallic beads. Krewes started to produce limited edition beads and plush toys that are unique to the krewe. Fiber optic beads and LED-powered prizes are now among the most sought-after items. In a retro-inspired twist, glass beads have returned to parades. Now made in India, glass beads are one of the most valuable throws.

Flambeau carriers

The flambeau ("flahm-bo" meaning flame-torch) was originally a carrier that served as a beacon for New Orleans parade goers to better enjoy the spectacle of night festivities. The first flambeau carriers were slaves. Today, the flambeaux are a direct connection to the Orleans version Carnival and a valued creation. Many view the flambeaux as a kind of performance art, a valid assessment given the wild gyrations and flourishes common to experienced flambeau carriers.

Parades that commonly feature flambeau carriers include Babylon, Chaos, d'Etat, Druids, Hermes, Muses, Orpheus, Proteus, Saturn, and Sparta. Many of the flambeau carriers today are descended from long lines of carriers, some going back to the days of slavery. Flambeaux are powered by naphtha, a highly flammable aromatic. It is tradition when the flambeau carriers pass to toss quarters to them in thanks for carrying the lights of Carnival though in these days handing dollar bills is also common.

Doubloons

One of the many Mardi Gras throws which krewes fling into the crowds, doubloons are large coins, either wood or metal, made in Mardi Gras colors. Artist H. Alvin Sharpe created the modern doubloon for The School of Design (the actual name of the Rex organization). According to the krewe history, in January 1959 Sharpe arrived at the offices of the captain of the krewe with a handful of aluminum discs. Upon entering the office, he threw the doubloons into the captain's face to prove that they would be safe to throw from the floats. Standard krewe doubloons usually portray the Krewe's emblem, name, and founding date on one side, and the theme and year of the parade and ball on the other side. Royalty and members of the court may throw specialty doubloons, such as the special Riding Lieutenant doubloons given out by men on horseback in the Rex parade. In the last decade, krewes have minted doubloons specific to each float. Krewes also mint special doubloons of cloisonné or pure silver for its members. They never throw these from the floats. Original Rex doubloons are valuable, but it is nearly impossible for aficionados to find a certified original doubloon. The School of Design did not begin dating their doubloons until a few years after their introduction.

Floats

Mobile platforms or trucks , each extravagantly decorated to depict one subject related to the parade’s theme that year. For example : Pinocchio might dominate a float in a parade of fairytales or children’s literature. Popular theme areas include mythology , history , fairytales and pop culture. Masked krewe members dressed in keeping with the parade theme or float subject toss a variety of throws to the crowds below.

Music

Music for Mardi Gras is jazz. The dancing in the royal courtroom set up starts with the song that has become the trademark of the Mardi Gras, "If Ever I Cease to Love."

4 Mardi Gras now

4.1 Weekend before New Orleans Mardi Gras

The population of New Orleans more than doubles with visitors this day. Thursday night starts off with a bang with an all-women's parade featuring the Krewe of Muses. The parade is relatively new, but its membership has tripled since its start in 2001. It is popular for its throws (highly sought after decorated shoes and other trinkets) and themes poking fun at politicians and celebrities. Friday night is the occasion of the large Krewe of Hermes and satirical Krewe D'État parades, ending with one of the fastest growing krewes, the Krewe of Morpheus There are several smaller neighborhood parades like the Krewe of Barkus and the Krewe of OAK. Several daytime parades roll on Saturday (including Krewe of Tucks and Krewe of Isis) and Sunday (Okeanos Krewe of Mid-City and Thoth). The first of the "super krewes", Endymion, parades on Saturday night, with the celebrity-led Bacchus parade on Sunday night.

4.2 Lundi Gras

Monday was recently declared to be as Lundi Gras ("Fat Monday"). The monarchs of the Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club and Krewe of Rex, who will parade the following day, arrive by boat on the Mississippi River front at the foot of Canal Street, where an all-day party is staged. Uptown parades start with the parade of one of New Orleans' most prestigious organizations, the Krewe of Proteus. Dating back to 1882, it is the second oldest krewe still parading in the city. The Proteus parade is followed by a newer organization, the music-themed super-Krewe of Orpheus, which is considered less prestigious as it draws a significant portion of its membership from outside the City.

4.3 Mardi Gras Day

The celebration begin early on Mardi Gras Day. New Orleans revised schedule means Mardi Gras can fall on any Tuesday between February 3 and March 9 (depending on the date of Easter).

In New Orleans, uptown, the Zulu parade rolls first, followed by the Rex parade, which both end on Canal Street. A number of smaller parading organizations with "truck floats" follow the Rex parade. Numerous smaller parades and walking clubs also parade around the city. The Jefferson City Buzzards, the Lyons Club, the Irish Channel Corner Club, Pete Fountain's Half Fast Walking Club and the KOE all start early in the day Uptown and make their way to the French Quarter with at least one jazz band. At the other end of the old city, the Society of Saint Anne journeys from the Bywater through Marigny and the French Quarter to meet Rex on Canal Street. The Pair-O-Dice Tumblers rambles from bar to bar in Marigny and the French Quarter from noon to dusk. Various groups of Mardi Gras Indians, divided into uptown and downtown tribes, parade in their finery.

4.4Ash  Wednesday

Ash Wednesday is the first day of Lent in the Western Christian calendar. Occurring 46 days before Easter, it is a moveable fast that can fall as early as February 4 and as late as March 10.

According to the canonical gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke; Jesus spent 40 days fasting in the desert, where he endured temptation by Satan. Ash Wednesday marks the beginning of this 40-day liturgical period of prayer and fasting or abstinence. Of the 46 days until Easter, six are Sundays. As the Christian Sabbath, Sundays are not included in the fasting period and are instead "feast" days during Lent.

Ash Wednesday derives its name from the practice of placing ashes on the foreheads of adherents as a celebration and reminder of human mortality, and as a sign of mourning and repentance to God. The ashes used are typically gathered from the burning of the palms from the previous year's Palm Sunday.

Although generally seen as a Catholic practice, as it was mostly abandoned by Protestants except for Anglicans after the Protestant Reformation, it has become increasingly common in much of Christianity, now being observed by many Lutherans and Methodists in addition to Catholics and Anglicans.

Conclusion

In my report I have set the task to study the history of the carnival season and Mardi Gras as its culmination day, to trace some traditions, origin and attributes of this wonderful event and finally to answer the question why it has remained to be so popular for many years.

I’ve learned that the very first carnival was held in Italy. From Italy, carnival traditions spread to the Catholic nations of Spain, Portugal, and France. From France to Germany, and to New France in North America. From Spain and Portugal, they spread to the Caribbean and Latin America.

Concerning the origin of the word “carnival”, I’ve found out that the origin of the name "Carnival" is disputed, between those that argue a link with the Italian word "carne" that means meat, and those that argue a link with the word "carrus" that means car.

It’s necessary to emphasize that Mardi Gras dates back thousands of years to pagan celebrations of spring and fertility. Mardi Gras always falls on the Tuesday that is 46 days before Easter. It is always the day before Ash Wednesday and Ash Wednesday is the first day of Lent. A common misconception is that Mardi Gras is the name for all of the revelry that begins January 6 and continues through Ash Wednesday. This season of revelry is called Carnival; Mardi Gras is the culmination of it all.

Carnival celebrations fall into two categories: public and private. The private celebrations are balls, held by clubs called krewes. Some krewes let anyone join, while others are exclusive and made up of FONOF (fine old New Orleans families). Krewe members pay annual dues, which finance the krewe’s activities. Many krewes also participate in public service projects of the city.

There are small and large krewes such as Rex and Zulu. Rex and Zulu are the biggest parades too. The first king of Zulu was William Story and the first king of Rex was Alexis Romanov, Russia’s Grand Duke. I’d like to attract your attention to the fact that the most famous Krewe of Zulu king was Louis Armstrong, who ruled in 1949.

In 1875 Louisiana declared Mardi Gras a legal state holiday. War, economic, political, and weather conditions sometimes led to cancellation of some or all major parades, especially during the American Civil War, World War I and World War II, but the city has always celebrated Carnival.

Working at my report I’ve got to know that there is no general theme for Mardi Gras, but each individual parade depicts a specific subject which is usually borrowed from mythology, history and Hollywood. The traditional colors of New Orleans Mardi Gras are purple for justice, green for faith and gold for power. Most parades have mock royalty, kings and queens. All parade riders throw trinkets - beads, doubloons, small toys – from the floats to the crowds. These are called “throws”. Parades consist of anywhere from 10 to 40 floats carrying krewe members, marching bands, dance groups, costumed characters and the like.

At these social parades, the queen of the parade (usually a young woman between the ages of 18 and 21, not married and in high school or college) and the king (an older male member of the club) present themselves and their court of maids (young women aged 16 to 18), and different divisions of younger children with small roles in the ball and parade, such as a theme-bearer.

The traditional food of the Carnival season is the king cake. Sweet roll-like dough is shaped into a big circle, cooked are brushed with purple, green and gold sugar or icing. Then a plastic baby, representing the Christ child, is tucked inside. Whoever gets the piece of cake containing the baby must, by tradition, provide the next king cake. Nowadays, king cakes come with a variety of fillings from chocolate to pineapple.

And in conclusion I want to say that it’s my dream to visit the USA in this period of the year and to enjoy Mardi Gras Carnival Season. I want to observe it with my own eyes but not on TV or videos, to learn more about its traditions and to investigate the secrets of its popularity. I'm happy with the chosen theme.

Literature

1. Hardy Arthur/ Mardi Gras in New Orleans: An Illustrated History/2009/128 pages.
2. Huber Leonard/ Mardi Gras: A Pictorial History of Carnival in New Orleans/1976/96 pages.
3. Laborde Errol/ Mardi Gras: Chronicles of the New Orleans Carnival /2013/216 pages.
4. Longman/ Dictionary of  English language/2005/1620 pages.
5. Mitchell Reid/All on a Mardi Gras Day: Episodes in the History of New Orleans Carnival /1999/ 264 pages.
6. Murray Julie/ Mardi Gras /2014/24 pages.
7. O’Neil Rosary/New Orleans Carnival Krewes: The History, Spirit and Secrets of Mardi Gras /2014/ 240 pages.
8. Tallant Robert/Mardi Gras . . . As It Was /1989/276 pages.
9. Wiley-Blackwell/Louisiana: A History /2014/552 pages.
10.  http://goneworleans.about.com/od/festivals/a/MardiGras.htm
11. http://www.mardigras.com/
12.  http://www.mardigrasneworleans.com/
13.  http://www.mardigrasworld.com/
14.  http://www.neworleansonline.com/neworleans/mardigras/
15.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mardi_Gras
16. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans
17. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice_Carnival