ON SOME PECULIARITIES OF SPOKEN ENGLISH

МОУ «ВОСТОЧНО-ЕВРОПЕЙСКИЙ ЛИЦЕЙ»

ON SOME PECULIARITIES OF SPOKEN ENGLISH

К ВОПРОСУ О НЕКОТОРЫХ ОСОБЕННОСТЯХ

РАЗГОВОРНОГО АНГЛИЙСКОГО

Творческая работа

 ученицы 11 М класса

Королевой Ксении

Руководитель: Блинова Е. Г.,

учитель английского языка

САРАТОВ 2010

CONTENTS

Introduction………………………………………………………………..3

Chapter 1. Characteristics of Different Variants of Modern English ……….4    

Chapter 2. Some Peculiarities of Conversational Usage …………………6  

Chapter 3. Intensification of the Utterance in Conversational English…………………………………………………………………. ………...17                         

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………26

Bibliography    ……………………………………………………………27

Introduction

The main point of this work is conversational English, the spoken language of everyday life. English language learners are often interested in informal conversational English but lack confidence in using it. The work treats upon the communicative aspects of some peculiarities of spoken grammar. So, special emphasis is laid on grammatical forms and structures commonly used in informal spoken English regardless of the topic.  It is common knowledge that there is a good deal of disproportion in the treatment of written and spoken language almost in all grammar books now in use. As a result of this disproportion the speech of most of   English language learners tends to sound stilted and pedantic though grammatically correct. It is so because we cultivate a bookish or formal style using grammatical forms and structures that are out of place in current everyday use. On the other hand, we often introduce idiomatic colloquial patterns into formal speech where they are inappropriate. We should bear in mind that “to talk as we write would sound pedantic and unnatural; to write as we talk would be slipshod” (C. E. Eckersley. A concise English Grammar for Foreign Students. London, 1946, p. 10).

The main aim of this work is finding out conversational structures and sentence patterns without which a conversation does not sound natural. The presentation of grammatical forms and structures typical of modern spoken English is made by giving samples of different styles (formal and informal), which illustrate the current usage of English. The illustrative material is of two kinds: made-up examples borrowed from linguistic works of foreign authors and citations in dialogue form drawn from original fiction texts of English and American writers as well as from newspapers, periodicals and recorded conversations.

The work covers some facts of English grammar and usage but does not pretend to be exhaustive in presenting all colloquial structures.

Chapter 1

General Characteristics of Different Variants of Modern English

Depending on the amount of education and social status of native speakers two main kinds of present day English may be distinguished: educated or standard English and uneducated or non-standard English. They are marked by significant differences in their grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary.

Educated or standard English is the sort of English naturally used by the majority of educated people in speaking and writing. It is uniform-national, not limited socially or geographically. Educated or standard English is marked by a great number of different functional varieties, also called styles, appropriate to given situations. The most common functional varieties or styles are: written English and spoken English.

The written variety of English is the type of language taught at schools and universities and generally used by press, radio and television. It is also used by educated speakers in formal situations for some serious purpose, for example, in literary prose, in official reports, scholarly articles, theses and reviews, scientific textbooks, essays, business letters and public speeches, in formal conversation. These types of communication are chiefly carried on in the form of monologue addressed by one person to many, and often prepared in advance.

Spoken English is the type of language naturally used by the majority of educated speakers in private two-way everyday communication and partly in familiar letters to intimate friends. It is usually maintained by the meaningful modulation of the voice – its rise and fall, its pauses and stresses, and all kinds of gestures.

There are many differences between written and spoken styles. The spoken variety of the language is by its nature spontaneous, momentary, and fleeting. The written language, on the contrary, lives a long life; it changes more slowly than the spoken one and is more conservative and homogeneous. Turning to grammatical characteristics we find quite obvious differences between the spoken and written language. The grammar of written English is more conservative, more complex. It makes use of longer sentences with more levels of subordination. The arrangement of sentences is by no means accidental. Each sentence is logically connected with those preceding and following it, thus forming a syntactical whole (a paragraph). Long sentences have all kinds of conjunctions and connectives such as furthermore, moreover, nevertheless, therefore, in connection with and some others. They have bookish flavour and are rarely used outside of the written style.

Spoken English is a workaday language which communicates the facts of everyday life and reacts to unofficial and private situations. It is characterized by its own phonetics and grammar. But it should not be treated as a poor version of the written language. In many ways the spoken language is a better means of communication than the written one. The spoken grammar makes use of contracted forms like: isn’t, aren’t, can’t, don’t, won’t and others which are proper in informal communication. Spoken English uses phrasal verbs in preference to their simple synonyms. For example: find out – discover, blow up – explode, give in – surrender. The same is true of multi-word phrasal verbs: to take a rest – to rest, to have a smoke – to smoke, to take care of – to care. In spoken English coordination is referred to subordination with such connectives as and, or, but, also.  On the other hand, it is typical to have a string of sentences without any connective words. The word order is much looser than in written style. Spoken language often uses the direct word-order in questions.

“Mike, you’ll ring Nigel again?”

“I’ve been thinking about that”, I said. “Honestly, I don’t think I can interfere.”

Oh but, dear, you promised.”

“Promised? I didn’t promise anything.” (W. Trevor)

Many things are left out of sentences because they are understood from the situation. It is natural in dialogue speech. Well-worn clichés, idioms, nonce-words, proverbs and sayings are common property of spoken English:

“It’s ages since we met”, “I was scared to death”.

Chapter 2

Some Common Peculiarities of Conversational Usage

A. Contracted Forms

One of the most characteristic features of ordinary informal conversation is the wide use of contracted forms of all kinds. The contractions are the key to English conversation. It should be stressed that one will never speak naturally and fluently until he masters them. There may be several types of contractions. They are, in fact, combinations of two words in which auxiliary and modal verbs and the link-verb be are abbreviated and merged with other words into one sound-form in speech (and apostrophized form in writing).  The most frequent types of contracted forms are with:

a) personal pronouns:

I’ll (=I shall or will), he’ll (=he will), you’ll (=you will),  I’m (= I am), he’s (=he is),  you’re (=you are), I’ve (=I have), you’ve (=you have), I’d (=I should or would), you’d (=You would), etc.

“He says it’s a Christmas song. You’ll never get away with it. They’ll never let you. (H.E. Bates)

“Listen, you’re the very man I’ve been waiting to meet”. (A. Cronin)

b) negative word not:

can’t (=cannot), mustn’t ( =must not), shan’t (=shall not), won’t (=will not), don’t (=do not), doesn’t (=does not), haven’t (=have not), hasn’t (=has not), isn’t (=is not), etc.

“Please, don’t get excited,” Renee said. “She can’t have gone very far.”  (J Cheever)

c) some indefinite, negative, interrogative pronouns:

somebody’s (=somebody is or has), nobody’s (=nobody is or has), what’s (=what is), who’s (=who is or has), etc.

Who’s to blame? Somebody’s knocking. What’ll you have?

Higgins: Nobody’s hurting you. Nothing’s wrong. You go to bed and sleep it off (B. Show)

d) the demonstrative pronoun that:  that’s (that is).

Howard: Say, aren’t you supposed to be in Boston?

Willy: That’s what I want to speak about. (A. Miller)

e) the adverbs:  where, here, now, how and the introductory there:

 “And where’s Mr Campbell?” Christie asked. “Gone to Switzerland.” (F. S. Fitzgerald) 

“How’s your mama?” she asked. “She’s fine, thanks,” Jim said. (W. Saroyan)

f) proper names and other nouns (usually short):

Sam’s coming. The dog’s barking. The soup’ll be ready.

Mary: I can never understand why people laugh at children’s love. Love’s painful at any age.

Victor: Oh come, Mary. I don’t find it painful. (G. Green)

It should be noted that pronunciation of some contracted forms differs from that of the full forms.

shan’t (= shall not),  won’t (=will not), can’t (=cannot), etc.

In spoken English two contracted forms are possible: a) an auxiliary verb is reduced and joint to the subject, forming one single unit. In this case the word not remains unreduced and stressed; b) an auxiliary verb is tagged on to the contracted negative particle n’t, forming one word.

We’re not ready. – We aren’t ready.

They’ve not caught him. – They haven’t caught him.

“It’s not going to be a turkey,” she said. “I think it’s going to be a success. But even if it isn’t I wouldn’t leave New York for six months in the middle of the season.”  (Irwin Show)

There is no contracted form for affirmative questions, affirmative tag-questions and affirmative short answers.

Is he ready? – Yes, he is.

“Come and sit down a minute, will you?” (W. Saroyan)

“I’m coming,” she said. – “No, you’re not.” – “Oh, yes, I am.” (E. Hamigway)

The contracted form “aren’t I” is widely used in spoken English.

Aren’t I trying to help you?

B. Substitutes

Another peculiarity of spoken English is the use of substitute words. It helps to avoid the repetition of different grammatical units (words and groups of words) already mentioned. Modern English has a large number of word-substitutes. Here belong all the auxiliary and modal verbs, different classes of pronouns, some adverbs and particles. The verb do is one of the most workable words in Modern English. It is often used as a substitute for the whole or part of the predicate group (where the verb is the present or past simple).

He didn’t give her an apple. – Yes, he did.

 “You look wonderful,” she said. “No, I don’t”, I said. “I look hungry. I am hungry. You look hungry too.” - “I don’t care if I do,” she said. (W. Saroyan)

Here the do-form replaces the whole predicate groups give her apple, look wonderful, look hungry too. All other auxiliary and modal verbs can act as substitutes.

He can cook as well as she can.

Are you going to clean the car? – I don’t think I will.

Is the kettle boiling?- It may be.

 “If he told you to wait outside, you’d better do it. You can’t stay in here.” (W. Saroyan)

But the most common substitute for the predicate group is the do-phrase with the adverb so in the meaning of addition in inverted form.

Mary wants a cup of coffee. So do I. (=and I want too).

“He wants me to keep away for a year.” – “So do I.” (J. Galsworthy)

In negative meaning such do-phrases as Neither do (does) or Nor do (does) are used.

Mary doesn’t want a cup of coffee. – Neither do I. / Nor do I.

Tyrone: “…and I don’t want to go upstairs, anyway, till she’s asleep.

Edmund: Neither do I.  (E. O’Neill)

The same is true to all other auxiliary verbs and modal verbs.

A: I’ve seen the play.

B: So have I (=and I have seen the play).

A: She can speak French.

B: So can John.

The negative word not alone can be a substitute for the predicate.

Mary wants a cup of coffee, but not John (=but John does not).

“You’d better have a look at them.” – “Is it necessary? On the whole, I’d rather not.” (A. Christie)

Mary invited everybody to her party. – Yes, but not me. 

I don’t want to go in. – Why not (= why don’t you want…)?

“Would your children go to school with them?” – “Sure. Good heavens. Why not?” (J.Updike)

The substitute one is used instead of a countable noun in the singular or in the plural. But it cannot replace the noun of material.

I need a sharp knife. – I can give you several sharp ones, but this is the best one I have.

“Why, you’ve got two cars!” said Ted. – “The new one isn’t mine,” said Tom. (R. Lardner).

But: Which tea would you like? The strong or the weak? (= The strong tea or the weak tea?)

The infinitive marker to can be a substitute for an infinitive or infinitive group.                                                      

Why don’t you come and stay with me? – I’d love to (do so)

“So shall we have a round about six?” – “Thanks very much. I’d like to.” (A. Christie)

The pronouns that and those can also act as substitutes. They replace class nouns or mass nouns.

The water of the Black Sea is much more salty than that of the White Sea.

The mountains of the Caucasus are much higher than those of the Urals.

There are also other words that can be used as substitutes: each, none, neither, either, all, some, the same, etc.

All want to be doctors.

Bob, John and George were invited to the party. However, none came while I was there. Can I have a cup of black coffee, please? – Give me the same, please.

The word so can act as a substitute in a number of cases, for example, after the verbs believe, think, suppose, say, hope, etc.

Our team will win next boat race. All my friends say so. (= They say that our team will win the next boat race.) Or: So all my friends say.

Are the Browns coming to dinner? – I think so / I suppose so / I hope so / I’m afraid so, etc.

C. Ellipsis

Ellipsis is very often used in dialogues (most commonly in questions and answers).

A sentence (an answer) said by the second speaker may have different types of ellipsis in order to avoid the repetition of the whole or part of what has been said by the first speaker. We can know what has been omitted on the basis of what is present in the preceding context. Some types of ellipsis may be dependent on the situational context (not only on the linguistic context).

Different types of ellipsis can be found in conversation. The element omitted can be:

a) the subject (the 1st person pronoun I, the 2nd person pronoun you, the 3d person pronoun he / she / they, the pronoun it, the introductory there:

Beg your pardon. Don’t know what to say. Can’t see that.

“Never know when you’re serious and when you’re pulling my leg,” he grumbled. (A. Christie)

Had a good time, did you? Want a drink?

“How is Stella?” asked Sandy. – “Oh, she’s all right. Likes to have a lay-down before the show, you know.” (W. S. Maugham)

b) the subject and part of the predicate (the 1st person pronoun I and one of the auxiliary verb or the link-verb be, the 3d person pronoun he, she, and the auxiliary verb or the link-verb be :

(I am) Sorry I couldn’t be there.

Addie: You fell all right, Mr Horace?

Horace: Glad to be sitting down. (L. Hellman)

“And where’s Mr Campbell?” Christie asked. – “Gone to Switzerland. Mr Campbell’s a pretty sick man, Mr Wales.” – “I’m sorry to hear that. And George Hardt?” Charlie inquired. – “Back in America, gone to work,” (F. S. Fitzgerald)

c) in general questions part of the predicate (the auxiliary verbs have, do, be, or link-verb be) and the pronoun expressing the subject:

(Do you) Want me?; (Are you) Looking for anybody?; (Have you) Got any chocolate?;

“He watched Stella… ‘Ready?’” he cried. – “Yes.” (W. S. Maugham)

“He didn’t say anything before he died? Leave any paper? No letter?” (A. Christie)

Mrs Ellis: My breakfast ready? (L. Hellman)

d) the subject and the whole predicate:

This is commonly used in the answers to special questions, introduced by where. Only adverbs of place and direction serve as an answer to a where-question. This type of ellipsis also takes place in the answers to other special and general questions.

“Gorry, where on earth are you going?” –“Up to town, Mother,” said Gorry. (D. Robins)

What did you give Mary? – A bunch of flowers.

Jerry: And you have children?

Peter: Yes, two.

Jerry: Boys?

Peter: No, girls – both girls. (E. Albee) 

e) the whole predicate:

Who told you the news? – John.

What prevented you from going there? – Weather.

What books do you like best? – Historical.

It is necessary to stress that in conversations all these types of ellipsis are more often used in different combinations. Questions are usually stimulated by what was said before. They may be stimulated also by the situational context.

A question may repeat part of what was said before. The questioner expresses some emotion (polite interest or great surprise).

I’m very angry. – Are you (very angry)?

The Browns are emigrating. – Emigrating?

An answer can consist of a new item.

I went to the theatre on Sunday. – With whom?

“Your husband should have help.” – “What with?” she said. (M. Spark)

Elliptical questions may consist of an interrogative word and final preposition, such as Where from / to?, What for / with?, Who with / by?, as well as of the interrogative word Where?, Why?, Who?, etc.

Edmund: You’d better call my mother, too.

Cathleen: What for? (E. O’Neill)

“I will not let you marry Joe, Clementina.” – “But why?”

The omission of a preposition is also common in conversation.

(Of) Course he’s here.

“It’s early yet,” she said, “Tommy Flinn won’t be home yet.” (St. Barstow)

We stayed there (for) three years. /  She cooks turkey (in) the way I like.

I’ll see you Sunday.

The conjunction that is often omitted in an object clause in spoken English.

I know (that) he is bachelor.

Sorry (that) I couldn’t be there.

D. The Use of Independent Elements in Sentence Structure

Another distinctive feature of spoken English is a wide use of words, word-groups, clauses which are not grammatically dependent on any part of the sentence. They serve as independent elements in sentence structure. These independent elements are: a) interjections and interjectional phrases such as ah, oh, eh, hallo, why, well, goodness, gracious, dear me, etc.; b) words of address (or vocatives); c) parentheses and insertions. These are essential part of everyday conversation. 

Interjections make up a specific class of emotive words and phrases expressing different emotions (joy, sorrow, surprise, anger etc.) Interjections are usually sentence-words themselves.

Professor: There, there! I’m sorry, darling; I really am! (J. Galsworthy)

Mulligan: Oh, for goodness sake, get up! (S O’Casey)

Vocatives are words or word-combinations used to arouse the listener’s attention. If the vocative is expressed by one word only this may be the listener’s proper name or his (her) professional name, or title, or a word denoting a relationship between the person addressed and the speaker. If it is a phrase it may be some emotional address whether friendly, as my dear fellow, my darling, or hostile, as you swine, you old rascal, etc.

The titles Mr, Mrs and Miss are used with family name: Mr Smith, Mrs Brown, Miss White. They are a polite formal manner of addressing someone. The first (or Christian) name  (John, Mary etc.) indicates friendly familiarity. Familiar forms of address like mum(my), dad(dy), auntie and endearments expressed by nouns such as honey, love, (my) darling, (my) dear, (my) sweet, etc., are often used in spoken English. The personal pronoun you alone or in combination with other words is used in spoken English as an impolite form of address.

Behave yourself, you! You, in the corner, stop chattering.

“Steady on, you fool, don’t lose your head again.”  (G. Robins)

Dion: Go to the devil, you sentimental old pig! See you tomorrow! (E. O’Neill) 

Forms of address to strangers in English are sir and madam. Schoolchildren address their men-teachers as sir, but women-teachers are addressed as, for example, Miss White, Mrs White. Professional titles as vocatives are also used nowadays. The title Doctor may be used alone when you address a doctor of medicine.

“How long will be before I’m well, Doctor?”

If you address a doctor of philosophy, or literature, or any other subject except medicine, the title should be followed by the family name, like Doctor North. The title Professor should also be followed by the family name of a man or a woman. If you know the person well, you may, in informal conversation, use Professor without the family name.

“I’m glad to meet you, Professor White.”

 “Well, Professor, we’ve had a very interesting discussion.”

 Military titles such as Captain, Colonel, etc., are also followed by a man’s name, Captain White, Major Andrerson.

There are a great number of certain words, stereotyped phrases and whole clauses which may be parenthetically inserted into a sentence without forming part of its grammatical structure.  A parenthesis is connected with the rest of the sentence semantically and it is used to show the speaker’s attitude to the thought contained in a sentence or to summarize what has been said in the sentence. The most common among parentheses are modal words (really, certainly, surely, indeed, perhaps, etc.) and stereotyped modal phrases (of course, in fact, at any rate, in a word, in my opinion, to be sure, to tell the truth, etc.) With the help of these the speaker expresses different degrees of certainty, uncertainty, doubt, probability, desirability, etc., of the action indicated in the sentence.

“More probably I shall look an awful sight.”

“Oh! No, you couldn’t possibly do that.”

The parenthetical words and phrases in a word, in short, in all, all in all, in brief, briefly, to be brief, in sum, etc., are used to mark a summation.

Another night passed; another morning came, but Johnny didn’t turn up. In a word, he must have been kidnapped and we heard no more of him.

Adverbs such as firstly, secondly, finally, then, so, anyway, moreover, besides, still, yet, otherwise, therefore, etc. also serve as parentheses and lead to a new stage in the development of thought.

Firstly I have not money to spend. Secondly I haven’t got a great mind to take a trip.

E. The Use of Nonce-words

Spoken English is notable for usage of so-called nonce-words. This is a characteristic feature of informal conversation where a real verb is substituted and another word substituted serves as a verb.

“Don’t keep on sirring me now! You’ve left school, you know! (W. J. Ball)

Peter: My dear fellow, I…

Jerry: Don’t my dear fellow me. (E. Albee)

The nonce-phrases don’t keep on sirring me and don’t my dear fellow me obviously mean the same as Don’t say ‘sir’ to me, or Don’t call me ‘my dear fellow’

So nonce-words and nonce-phrases are generally emotional and show different feelings of the speaker (irritation, anger, impatience).

F. Formulaic Utterances (Greetings, Farewells, Introductions)

Normal English conversation of everyday life is characterized by a large number of formulaic utterances that you do not find in the written language. They include greetings, farewells, introductions, reaction signals, thanks, toasts, alarm calls, etc. They are stereotyped phrases of cliché type.

1. Greetings:

Good morning (formal); Hello, Hi (very familiar); How goes it? (familiar).  

2. Farewells:

Good-buy (formal); Cheerio (familiar), Cheers, See you, So long (very familiar)

3. Reaction signals:

Yes, Yeah, All right, OK, Certainly, Absolutely, Right, Sure, etc.

No, Certainly not, Definitely not, Not likely, etc.

4. Toasts:

Good health! Your health! (formal); Cheers; Heres to you (your future / your new job).

5. Warnings:

Mind; Be careful; Watch out / it; Look out;

6. Imprecations:

Blast you / it!; Oh, hell!; Damn you / it!; Go to hell!; Bugger it / off!, etc.

7. Expletives:

My!; Gosh!; (By ) Golly!; Good Heavens!; Good God!; Good Lord!; Christ Almighty!, etc.

8. Miscellaneous exclamations:

Faster!; Not so fast; Goal!; Success; Good!; Excellent!; You lucky girl / boy!; Poor John!; Silly boy!; Shame!; What a pity!; Oh, dear!; Well, well! etc.

Chapter 3

Intensification of the Utterance in Conversational English

In normal and spontaneous conversation of everyday life the speakers not only exchange ideas or ask for information, or urge the listener to do something, but they naturally convey by language means various feelings and emotions reflecting state of mind or the mood in which they may happen to be.

Intensification of speech is a permanent and highly important feature of colloquial style. There are various means of giving emphasis to a whole sentence or any part of it. They include stress, various kinds of intensifiers, exclamations, the emphatic do in declarative and imperative sentences, reduplications, emphatic syntactic structures, interjections, vocatives, expletive words, etc.

A. Stress on Auxiliary and Semi-auxiliary Verbs

If auxiliary or semi-auxiliary verbs receive stress it adds emotive emphasis to the whole sentence.

That 'will be nice!

We 'have enjoyed ourselves!

If a sentence does not contain an auxiliary or semi-auxiliary verb intensification can be achieved by introducing the emphatic do.

I 'do remember it well.

You 'did promise to help me.

Mary: I 'do feel out of sort this morning. (E. O’Neill)

Madge: I 'do love him! I do! (W. Inge)

Further intensification can be achieved by placing an emphasizer such as: really, certainly, surely, etc.

It really 'does taste nice.

“You sure 'do make it sound like something mighty urgent,” he said… (E. Caldwell)

I actually 'do think that the official peace committees in Eastern Europe care about peace as well. (Morning Star)

In familiar speech the stress is often applied to the pronoun such and the adverb so to give special emotive force to a statement, question and command. The exclamatory words so and such receive stress.

I’m 'so pleased to see you.

Don’t upset yourself 'so!

He’s ‘such a man!

“I’m 'so glad you like it,” breathed Mrs Lyon-West. (M. Arlen)

Any element of a sentence can take a stress for special emotive force.  

I wish you’d 'listen. I ‘love that music.

I’m 'terribly sorry!

B. The Use of Intensifiers

A great number of intensifiers are normally used in English conversation. They may be expressed by various parts of speech: adverbs, modal verbs, particles, pronouns, nouns, noun-phrases, adjectives. There are two groups of intensifiers: 1) general sentence intensifiers which give emotive force to the whole sentence, and 2) those which add emotive emphasis to a certain part of a sentence.

B. 1. General Sentence Intensification

General sentence intensifiers are expressed by such modal words as: actually, really, indeed, certainly, sure(ly), for sure, for certain, of course, etc. They are mobile and can take any position in the sentence. It shows that they convey the speaker’s attitude to the whole thought contained in the utterance.

I really want to talk to you.

Thank you very much indeed.

 Then, my dear Nanjac, you must certainly read between the lines. (O. Wilde)

Most general intensifiers can precede the predicate in the negative form.

I certainly won’t leave so long as you are in mourning. (O. Wilde)

Brown: You really shouldn’t encourage him. He’s married and got three big sons. (E. O’Neill)

Many general intensifiers can serve as a response to general questions, but then they are equal to Yes.

Will you come with me? – Certainly / Of course / Sure, etc.

The use of general sentence intensifiers depends on the type of the sentence. The main sphere of their use is the declarative sentence. In interrogative sentences very few general intensifiers can be found. The most common of them are: really and indeed.

Isn’t it true, indeed?

Do you  really want him to be an artist?

“You do really love me? (D. Robins)

Imperative sentences also use general intensifiers. Modal words and such words as actually, really, definitely are used in imperatives.

Don’t actually hate him for it.

Definitely buy it now.

Make an effort this time. But really make an effort.

B. 2. Intensifiers Giving Emotive Force to a Certain Part or a Sentence

These make up a large group of words belonging to different parts of speech. They usually modify the word or the phrase immediately following them. These intensifiers may be connected with any element of the sentence expressed by various parts of speech (including adjectives, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, etc.) and also by groups of words.

B. 2. 1. Intensification of the Verb or the Verb-phrase

The intensifying adverbs which modify the verb or verb-phrase include such words as: completely, greatly, utterly, entirely, badly, extremely, right, rather, quite etc.

They utterly / violently detested him.

I entirely agree…, I badly need / want…, I completely forget…, They greatly admire / enjoy…

 “My dear man, if you want them that badly, you can certainly have them for five dollars.” (C. Hare)

“You’re pretty badly hurt, aren’t you? (J. Collier)

“Lucinda and I want terribly to see you,” he said over his shoulder… (J. Cheever)

The adverb greatly is used with verbs having a favourable implication and utterly with  verbs having an unfavourable implication. Such intensifier as deeply is used with the “emotive verbs”.

They wounded him deeply. (emotive wounding)

They wounded him badly. (physical wounding)

The adverb deeply combines with hate, dislike, admire, love, value, but not with like. I deeply like is impossible.

The intensifying adverb much is mostly used in negative and interrogative sentences. The adverb much is used with the adverb very or its synonym too. In affirmative sentences much is used with such adverbs as very, so, too.

I don’t like him much. Do you like him much?

I don’t like him very / too much.

Brown: I won’t bother you much. (E. O’Neill)

I like him very / so / too much (but not: I like him much).

I think I should like some supper very much. (O. Wilde).

Yet, with some verbs, such as: admire, prefer, would rather / sooner, etc., much alone can be used, but only in the position before the predicate. Such intensifying adverbs as well, so, much also appear in the position before the predicate.

We much prefer his offer.

We much admire your painting.

We much regret the loss.

We much appreciate your invitation. (But not: We prefer his offer much)

Darrel: I’d much rather have him grow up to be an exact duplicate of the esteemed Samuel! (E. O’Neill)

I very much would prefer to meet you.

I well can understand your problem.

I so did want to meet you.

There is a group of adverbs and idiomatic phrases that are used in emotive speech as approximators (they denote an incomplete action) come before the predicate. They include: almost, nearly, about, practically, all but, rather, quite, etc.  

I almost forgot it.

They practically forced him to resign.

Rose: I’ve gone a good deal of thinking about it; and I’ve just about decided it’s why you stayed in Europe so long. (L. Hellman)

She all but kissed us.

He all but strangled me.

On the other hand the intensifying adverbs a bit, at all, a little, enough prefer final position.

I don’t know her at all.

Would you wait me a little?

Do you know, Gertrude, I don’t mind your talking of morality a bit. (O. Wilde)

The words quite, exactly, precisely are often used as a response on the declarative sentence.

A: He has no right to object. – B: Quite / Exactly / Precisely.

Four adverbs: hardly, barely, scarcely, little, never, denoting the minimum of an action are themselves negative and cannot be used in negative sentences.

I scarcely slept a wink.

They hardly / scarcely / barely need it at all.

She scarcely seems to care for anybody, does she?   

There are some other familiar and emotively coloured expressions of negation. They are: in all her life, in the world, a little, a damn, a bit, a button, a straw, a pin, etc.

I wasn’t a little worried.

I don’t care a damn / a bit / a button / a straw whether you win or lose.

I’ve not had a wink of sleep these last two nights. (J. Galsworthy)

“I don’t care a pin about the play,” he said. (D. Robbins)

B. 2. 2. Intensification of Other Parts of Speech

Many of the intensifying adverbs and phrases considered above can also give emphasis to other parts of speech, such as: nouns, indefinite pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, numerals, etc.  

In informal style some intensifiers are often used with nouns (or noun-phrases) stressing their emotive force. The most common of these are quite and rather, such and what.

He had quite a party.

He is such a fool.

It was rather a mess.

What a mess they made.

…And he will think me quite an old woman. (B. Shaw)

Some other intensifying phrases already mentioned above can also be used for giving emphasis to a noun or a noun-phrase. Among them we find the informal intensifying phrases kind of, sort of, a bit of, a hell of, a heck of, etc.

He gave her a sort of laugh.

I had a bit of shock.

They gave me a hell of time.

Darrell: And Gordon is –well – sort of my stepson, isn’t he? (E. O’Neill)

A few intensifying adverbs right, totally, well and dead can also be used for giving emphasis to prepositional noun-phrases.

He made his report well within the time.

His parents objected dead to the trip.

“Well, you go right to bed,” said her mother. (R. Lardner)

“It was totally against my nature.” (J. Fowles)

These intensifying adverbs and also far, by far, fully are used with phrasal verbs stressing their emotive force.

They left him well behind.

She went far ahead.

Now there are two things to do right away. Your choice.

Some intensifying adverbs are often used with adjectives and adverbs giving them emotive force. They are: very, so, too, most, extremely, awfully, dreadfully, frightfully, terrible, and the pronoun that (as a synonym with so, too) etc.

It’s very / extremely / too / awfully / kind of you.

She is a very clever girl, though too young.

Now, Oliver, you shouldn’t take business so seriously. Smile. Don’t be so American. (G. Kaufman, E. Ferber)

I won’t bother you much – I’m much too busy – you can do what you like… (E. O’Neill)

I say, I’m most awfully glad to meet you, sir, and all that. (T. Rattigan)

I’m sorry I hit you. You and I never scrap that bad. (E. O’Neill)

She doesn’t come back all that early. Come. (F. King)

In more informal style such adjectives as pretty, jolly, awful, and such nouns as dog, dirt have intensifying function.

“Yes, it’s pretty clear what happened,” assented the detective. (G. K. Chesterton)

“I’m jolly glad I did, my dear.” (D. Robins)

“I’m dog tired. I can’t stay up all night like I used to.”  (E. O’Neill)

 “Yes, I bought it last week. The last owner sold up in a hurry, I got it dirt cheap.” (Morning Star)

To give emotive emphasis to adjectives and adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree some intensifying adverbs and noun-phrases can be used. They are: much, far, a great deal, far and away, a lot, a damn sight, the best of the best, the kindest of the kind, the wonder of the wonders, etc.

He is far the most distinguished student in the group.

John was far and away the best example to follow.

“You’ll feel ever so much better when it’s all over.” (J. Galsworthy)

Beauty is the wonder of all wonders.

In informal style the interrogative words who, what, why, where, how, etc., and set phrases, such as: on earth, in the hell, the devil, the deuce, the dickens, in the heck, etc. give the question strong emotive force.

Who on earth told you that?

Where in the hell have you got it?

“Why on earth did you say that?” (M. Spark)

Nick: What the hell are you talking about? (L. Hellman)

Higgins: What the dickens has happened to you? (B. Show)

There is a peculiar group of intensifying words belonging to particles. They are: only, just, also, even, still, too, merely, simply, purely, alone, exactly. They serve to emphasize the meaning of any part of a sentence.

I saw only him.

 I merely asked his name.

          You are just the person I am looking for.

John only agrees with me.

I simply don’t understand that.

“That’s right, Sam…just what I wanted you to say! (E. O’Neill)

“I simply want my cigarette-case back.” (O. Wilde)

“There’s absolutely nothing to cry about. Just pull yourself together and do something practical.”  (I. Murdoch)

Thus, in spoken language intensification plays an important role acting as means of emphasis.

Conclusion

“Just as there is formal and informal dress, so there is formal and informal speech. One is not supposed to turn up at a ministerial reception or a scientific symposium wearing a pair of bright colourful pyjamas… Consequently, the social context in which the communication is taking place determines both the mode of dress and the models of speech.” (G.B. Antrushina, O. V. Afanasyeva, N.N. Morozova. English Lexicology., 1985.) When people find themselves   in different situations they instinctively choose different kinds of words and structures to express

their thoughts. The types of communication may be different: professional communication, a lecture, an informal talk, a formal letter, an intimate letter, a speech in court, etc. These can be divided into two styles: formal and informal. The choice of the correct form and structure depends on style. Informal style is relaxed, free-and-easy, unpretentious.      

One of the dominant and distinctive features of spoken English is word-economy which is obtained by the use of contracted forms. Contracted forms are common in lively conversation and in informal writing. They are used in affirmative and negative statements, and in negative questions. However, contracted forms are normally avoided in formal speaking and writing (official speeches, reports, lectures, business letters, etc.).

Another peculiarity of spoken English is the use of substitute words. Substitution is a means of avoiding the repetition of different grammatical units. Modern English has a large number of word-substitutes.

The most vivid manifestation of “word-economy” is ellipsis. Ellipsis is typically used in dialogues (most commonly in the form of question and answer). It plays a very important part in the connection between sentences said by different speakers.

Spoken English is notable for the use of independent elements in sentence structure (interjections and interjectional phrases) and the use of nonce-words. Normal English conversation of everyday life is characterized by a large number of formulaic utterances that are not found in written English.

In every day conversation the speakers convey by language means various feelings and emotions. That is why intensification of speech is very important in informal style. There are various ways and means of giving emphasis to a whole sentences or any part of it.

The problem of functional styles is interesting, useful and important to study. It seems to present an important aspect of the language learning process. It gives the leaner the knowledge of how to choose correct words and sentence structures for each speech situation.

Bibliography

1. Арнольд И. В. Лексикология английского языка. М. 1959.

2. Fower H. W. A Dictionary of Modern English Usage. The Clarendon Press. 1996.

3. Tuener G. W. Stylistics. Ldn., 1973.

4. Eckersley C. E. A Concise English Grammar for Foreign Students. London, 1946.

5. Бузаров В. В. Основы синтаксиса английской разговорной речи. М.: Просвещение. 1999..

6. G.B. Antrushina, O. V. Afanasyeva, N.N. Morozova. English Lexicology., 2005.