"Medicine in Medieval England"

Муниципальное общеобразовательное учреждение «Лицей №4»

Городская научно-практическая конференция

«Современные политико-правовые технологии»

Направление: социально-гуманитарное.

Секция: иностранные языки.

Тема: Medicine in England.

Выполнила: ученица 9»б» класса

Дюбченко Виктория Александровна

Руководитель: Оганисян Елена Нориковна

Саратов 2011 год

Contents.

1. Introduction…………………………………………………………….2

                  Chapter 1. How to become a doctor…………………………………………........3

1. Volunteer or work in a medical setting………………………….3
2. Excel……………………………………………………………..3
3. Commit…………………………………………………………..3
4. Graduate from a 4-year college or university……………………3
5. Take the Medical School Admissions Test (MCAT)……………4

Chapter 2. The School of Natural Medicine…………………………………..….4

Chapter 3. Health and medicine in Medieval England……………………...........7

Chapter 4. Medicine in Elizabethan England………………………………….....9

Chapter 5. Cures from Medieval England………………………………………..13

1. For toothache…………………………………………………......13

2. The cause of the Black Death………………………………….…13

3. For evil spirits in the head…………………………………….….13

4. For general illnesses…………………………………………...…13

5. Blood letting…………………………………………………...…13

6. Cauterisation………………………………………………..……13

7. Astrology……………………………………………………..….14

2. Conclusion………………………………………………………….….15
3. Literature………………………………………………………………16
4. Application.

Introduction.

My topic is "Medicine in England". The aim of my work is to find out interesting and useful information about medical health care. My research concerns medicine nowadays and treatment long ago. I have chosen this topic because first of all it is the most useful topic for all people as I think, and it is of vital importance to all of us.  

Doctors make people healthier. They examine people, listen to them describe their health problems, and do tests to see what is wrong. They give people medicine and other kinds of treatment. They also give advice about diet, exercise, and sleep. There are many kinds of doctors. Family and general practitioners are often the first doctors that people go to when they get sick. These doctors treat common problems. They also send patients to other doctors, called specialists. Specialists are experts in specific types of health problems. For example, internists focus on problems with internal organs. Pediatricians care for children and babies. Surgeons perform operations, like fixing broken bones or transplanting organs. Most doctors are doctors of medicine (M.D.). They treat all kinds of diseases and injuries. Some doctors are doctors of osteopathic medicine (D.O.). They focus on muscles and bones. Many doctors work long hours, at all times of day and night. About 3 out of 10 physicians worked more than 60 hours a week in 2008. But doctors who work in small offices often have more time off. Doctors sometimes have to rush to the hospital to deal with emergencies.

Many people have dreams of becoming doctors and saving lives, but between you and the career as a medical doctor is a whole lot of rigorous training, there to make sure that you can handle the great responsibility that comes with the job. Requirements vary from country to country, but intense dedication is a mandatory across the board.

                  Chapter 1.

How to become a doctor.

Volunteer or work in a medical setting. Many people strive to become doctors because it seems like a great way to help people, and because it's a secure and respectable career. But becoming a doctor is not the only way to achieve those goals, and you need to make sure it's something you really want to do. You'll work long hours, deal with difficult people, and your life will practically revolve around your career. People's lives will depend on your commitment to the job and your ability to stay calm and make decisions under pressure. Not only will volunteering give you a chance to review your choice, but it will also look good on your record if you do decide to pursue medicine.

Excel. In order to get into medical school, you'll not only need excellent grades, but you'll also need to demonstrate that you are a responsible, well-rounded person. Through your community service record, show that you enjoy helping people. Get to know your teachers and supervisors and earn their respect--one day, their recommendation letters may be your golden ticket into medical school.

Commit. While there is a well-defined path to getting an MD, success depends more on a commitment to your goals and interests than on doing exactly what every other applicant does. When you interview for a spot in a med school class the admissions committee wants to see that you can accomplish your goals - no matter what they are. They prefer a successful shot-putter to a mediocre test taker.

Graduate from a 4-year college or university. Choose an institution with a strong pre-med program, or even one that is affiliated with a particular medical school. (Some institutions offer a program which allows you to complete your undergraduate degree and medical degree at the same time.) In order to qualify for admission to medical school, you will have needed to have taken the following coursework, along with other subjects, which will be outlined in a particular medical school's admissions requirements:

2 year of freshman chemistry with laboratory courses.

1 year of organic chemistry with laboratory courses.

1 year of biology with laboratory courses.

1 year of physics with laboratory courses.

1 year of English.

1 year of calculus

Take the Medical School Admissions Test (MCAT) or if you live in the UK the UK Clinical Aptitude Test (UKCAT) AND BioMedical Admissions Test (BMAT). Take several practice tests and see how you do. Then take several more before the real thing. You will be tested in the following areas, the first three of which are graded on a scale of 1-15:

Verbal Reasoning (Reading Comprehension)

Physical Sciences (Chemistry and Physics)

Biological Sciences (Organic Chemistry and Biology)

Writing Sample (two essay questions)

Strive to get above a 10 in each of the first three sections in order to get a competitive MCAT score.

Complete medical school. Once you've applied and been accepted to medical school, here's what you can expect:

First two years - emphasis on education; broad introduction to all medical specialties; you'll also learn to take medical histories, examine patients, and diagnose illnesses

USMLE Step 1 - in most schools, you must pass this in order to progress into the third year.

Third year - 1-2 months of each of the major medical specialties (internal medicine, general surgery, pediatrics, OB/GYN, etc.); work with patients under the supervision of experienced physicians in hospitals and clinics, learning acute, chronic, preventive, and rehabilitative care, as well as the social skills that give a doctor good bedside manner.

Fourth year - Take electives based on preferred specialty; apply to residency programs; pass the USMLE Step 2

Enter your residency training period. This takes place in a hospital setting in which you earn a salary (on average, $44,000/year) while you are trained. It begins in the first week of July after you graduate from medical school (in May). You are responsible for patients and are supervised by senior residents as well as attending physicians. Residency typically lasts about three years. Some specialties may require as many as eight years of residency training before you are licensed to practice.

In some specialties, you'll be required to spend your first year (the "intern" or "transitional" year) elsewhere before you begin your residency.

At some point during your residency you must pass the USMLE Step 3 in order to be state-certified for practice of medicine. USMLE Step 3 covers clinical thinking and clinical management.

The School of Natural Medicine, U.K. is affiliated with and it's Iridology Diploma course is accredited and approved by the Guild of Naturopathic Iridologists (GNA). The Guild of Naturopathic Iridologists is affiliated with the Complementary Medicine Association (CMA) and our graduates qualify for membership to these regulatory organizations. For students interested in studying or working Internationally and in the U.S.A., the School of Natural Medicine in Boulder is Approved and Regulated by the Colorado Department of Higher Education, Private Occupational School Board. In addition graduates qualify for membership to the British Register of Iridologists and the International Register of Integrated Iridologists, the premier register for Naturopaths and Iridologists worldwide.

                  Chapter 2.

The School of Natural Medicine was founded in Cambridge, England in 1977 by Farida Sharan, ND MIr FBRI FGNI MDMA, author of 'Iridology - a Complete Guide', 'Herbs of Grace – Becoming Independently Healthy' and 'Creative Menopause’, the ‘Iridology Colouring Book’ and ‘Dictionary of Iridology.

The School of Natural Medicine evolved out of the British School of Iridology & Natural Medicine, which was the first school of Iridology in England (also founded by Farida Sharan) and set the standards for the professional education of Integrated Iridology in this part of the world.

During the 1980's, Farida Sharan hosted conferences to bring many pioneers in the world of Iridology to England, including Dr. John R. Christopher (Patron to the School of Natural Medicine until his death in 1983), Dr. Bernard Jensen, Dorothy Hall (also a Patron of SNM), Denny Johnson, Willy Hauser and others, to begin a mutual cooperative dialog within the world of Iridology, and trained many of the most respected and successful practitioners and teachers of Iridology and Naturopathy in the UK and abroad.

Farida also founded Herbs of Grace (now run by Peter Enkel, a SNM graduate and his son) and, Wholistic Research, a well known company run by a former client and her family. Together with John Morley, Farida co-created the Iridology Research Manifesto to protect the integrity and quality of Iridology.

The School of Natural Medicine created the first iridology register in the UK, The British Registar of Iridologists, to honor professional standards of training and practice. Members of the BRI were the foundation with which Peter and Angela Bradbury created the Guild of Naturopathic Iridologists. SNM courses and graduates are the foundation for standards set by the Guild of Naturopathic Iridologists, an organization that is administrated by dedicated and skilled Iridologists, many of whom are graduates of the School of Natural Medicine.

In 1988 a U.S. branch of the School of Natural Medicine was opened in Boulder, Colorado. This school is an approved and accredited occupational school offering Natural Physician, Master Herbalist, Master Iridologist and Naturopathy diplomas, and Healing Diets Teacher, Essential Oils Therapist, Flower Essence Practitioner, and Master Touch Reflexologist certifications. The Boulder, Colorado school has been a stronghold for the education and practice of pure naturopathy, integrated iridology and the principles of holistic wellness in United States, and attracted students from around the world for more than twenty years. Now called the School of Natural Medicine, International, the school continues to flourish in Boulder, Colorado.

In 2007 Bonny White, a graduate of the School of Natural Medicine, opened the School of Natural Medicine, U.K. in Cambridge. Offering a central location that is easy for students to access from across Europe, it has already attracted a strong international student body. The School of Natural Medicine in Cambridge is dedicating to remaining a small school that specialises in training students to become the highest level of primary care natural physicians. We offer personal and caring class environments where evolution of the individual and self healing is considered of equal value to academic and clinical training. We are also committed to remaining true to the spirit of wholistic and natural medicine; a form of medicine with a long and honourable tradition, a history of deep rooted integrity and with a beauty and sincerity deserving of a practitioners lasting passion.

Farida Sharan now resides in Boulder, Colorado and offers Self Healing Intensives and classes for International Students working towards their school diplomas. She is currently working on several new books. She also visits the U.K. regularly to teach students in Cambridge.

Chapter 3.

Health and medicine in Medieval England

Health and medicine in Medieval England were very important aspects of life. For many peasants in Medieval England, disease and poor health were part of their daily life and medicines were both basic and often useless. Towns and cities were filthy and knowledge of hygiene was non-existent. The Black Death was to kill 2/3rds of England’s population between 1348 and 1340.

In 1349, Edward III complained to the Lord Mayor of London that the streets of the city were filthy:

No one knew what caused diseases then. There was no knowledge of germs. Medieval peasants had been taught by the church that any illness was a punishment from God for sinful behaviour. Therefore, any illness was self-imposed – the result of an individual’s behaviour.

Other theories put forward for diseases included "humours". It was believed that the body had four humours (fluids in our bodies) and if these became unbalanced you got ill. Doctors studied a patient’s urine to detect if there was any unbalance.

Astronomers blamed the planets going out of line

As important, no-one knew how diseases spread – the fact that people lived so close together in both villages and towns meant that contagious diseases could be rampant when they appeared; as happened with the Black Death.

Physicians were seen as skilled people but their work was based on a very poor knowledge of the human anatomy. Experiments on dead bodies were unheard of in Medieval England and strictly forbidden. Physicians charged for their services and only the rich could afford them. Their cures could be bizarre though some cures, including bleeding and the use of herbs, had some logic to them even if it was very much a hit-or-miss approach. One of the most famous physicians was John Arderne who wrote "The Art of Medicine" and who treated royalty. He was considered a master in his field but his cure for kidney stones was a hot plaster smeared with honey and pigeon dung!

Physicians would have had their own ideas as to what caused illnesses.

Those who blamed bad smells developed a ‘cure’ to make the bad smells go away.

Those who blamed bad luck would use prayers and superstitions.

Those who blamed the body’s four humours used bleeding, sweating and vomiting to restore the balance of the four humours.

When by some luck, a patient got better or simply improved, this was a sure sign that a cure worked. It also meant that the cure used would be used again. If it did not work on the next patient, this was the fault of the patient rather than of the cure.

Operations were carried out by ‘surgeons’. In fact, these men were unskilled and had other jobs such as butchers and barbers. The traditional red and white pole outside of a barber’s shop today is a throwback to the days in Medieval England when barbers did operations. The red stood for blood and the white for the bandages used at the end of an operation.

Operations could end in death as post-operative infections were common. Instruments used in an operation were not sterilised - as there was no knowledge of germs, there was no need to clean instruments used in operations. Patients might recover from small operations, such as a tooth extraction (though this could not be guaranteed), but operations that included a deep cut through the skin were very dangerous.

Some monasteries had cottage hospitals attached to them. The monks who worked in these hospitals had basic medical knowledge but they were probably the best qualified people in the country to help the poor and those who could not afford their own physician. By 1200, there may have been as many as 400 hospitals in England.

 Chapter 4.

Medicine in Elizabethan England.

During the reign of Henry VIII (1485-1509) in England, the royal confiscation of monastic land s and church properties put a huge crutch on the entire charitable system. Between 1536 and 1544, one would have to search far and wide for medical help, and there was absolutely no help for indigent people in the city of London. In 1569, royal hospitals were finally restored, including Christ's Hospital for Children, St. Mary's of Bethlem for mental cases, and general hospitals such as St. Bartholomew's and St. Thomas'. However, hospitals were not the only options for a sick individual. Queen Elizabeth I's reign (1558-1603) brought the restoration of general charity, and there were many types of professionals and individuals to turn to for seeking medicals attention. As a result of this broad spectrum of medical choice, a mixture of the theory of Humors, the Doctrine of Signatures, astrology, tradition, chemical science, and magic became the basis for popular medicine in Elizabethan England.

One of the most socially acceptable and encouraged forms of charity was medical charity. It was believed that sick people obviously needed help to have a positive recovery. Another motive for giving medical help was to help the poor make a safe return from sickness back to work, and thus removing the need to further provide monetary help. The city of Norwich often paid large amounts for physicians to treat the poor. It was also often that the city would hire one poor person to nurse and keep another poor, sick person, to kill two birds with one stone. An interesting fact is that it was common for a small sum to be paid initially to a bonesetter, but the bulk of the fee would only be paid when the patient was able to walk again. Thus, it is apparent that the practitioner took full responsibility for the patient during the recovery period. The city of Norwich also paid for shelter during the recovery period for patient. Norwich is the prime example of the great involvement and motivation for treating the poor and the sick in Elizabethan England.

When a merchant in Elizabethan London gets a fever, he first will ask the physician to diagnose him. Then, he will ask his wife if she knows of a certain herb that will lower his fever. If she has nothing in her stillroom, then she contacts an apothecary. The apothecary will then prepare the medicine prescribed by the physician. If finding little relief, the merchant will then go to the local "cunning" woman down the street, who will give him a charm sprinkled with bergamot oil, advise him to eat cool and dry foods, and maybe advise him to consider attaching a leach or two to his skin to relieve his blood Humor, This is an example of the common diagnosis and treatment of a patient.

It is apparent that medicine was distributed by an array of different people. The doctor a patient could see depended on the patient's class and whether he or she had the money to pay the fee. These professional physicians, who would have received an education at one of the Universities or Colleges for Physicians, were usually only afforded by the very wealthy. Surgeons had a similar reputation to the barbers, whom they associated with and belonged to in the Company of Barber-Surgeons. Barbers were only allowed to pull teeth or let blood by cutting or use of leaches. Usually, patients first visited the apothecary, who was the Elizabethan equivalent for today's pharmacist. They carried herbs, oils, chemicals, cosmetics, perfumes, and drugs. The Church could be considered a participating medical practitioner for providing attention and comfort to the sick and poor. Poor patients, however, usually first contacted the local "wise woman" or "cunning woman." Usually, this woman had a good reputation for traditional remedies and treatments. Bonesetters set bones for broken limbs and ribs. Midwives took care of the childbirth department of medicine. There were also herb-gatherers-and-compounders, hernia specialists, cataract couchers, dentists, and many other types other types of specialist. Lastly, there were ordinary Elizabethan housewives, who were expected to have some knowledge of simple herbal and traditional remedies to produce homemade medicines and potions. En masse, a patient who had many options, and picked and chose from different services from many individuals and types of providers.

Medicine in Elizabethan England was ridiculously basic for an era with terrible illnesses, such as the Bubonic plague and typhoid, and an enormous lack of sanitation in large cities with open sewers filled with garbage, infestation of rats, lice, and fleas, and no running water. The cause of illness was almost entirely unknown, and the beliefs were mostly based on teachings by ancient Greeks and astrology. The ignorance is also apparent in the common clothing of physicians, which were often seen as very strange. The clothing consisted of a large, full, dark cloak, boots, gloves, a hat, and a mask shaped like a bird's beak, which held bergamot oil. They also wore amulets of dried blood and ground-up toads at the waist for preventative purposes. It was also a custom to douse oneself with vinegar and to chew angelica before approaching the patient. These precautionary steps may seem very ridiculous and random. However, the popular belief about medicine formed from six different theories, which happened to make sense at the time.

The ancient Greek, Galen, formed the first theory. He believed that the body consists of our bodily fluids called "Humors": blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Each humor possessed certain characteristics. Blood is hot and wet, Phlegm is cold and wet, Yellow Bile is hot and dry, and Black Bile is cold and dry. A natural balance of these fluids will keep the body in a healthy state. Any imbalance will result in illness. For example, a cold is the result of too much hot and dry phlegm in the body. This can be counteracted by drying and heating, or staying in bed and eating hot soup. For another example, a fever is the result of an excess of blood in the body. A treatment for the fever would be to remove excess blood with leaches, or eat cool and dry foods, like crackers. The characteristics of the four Humors were also considered for treating mental illnesses, as blood is sanguine, phlegm is phlegmatic, yellow bile is choleric, and black bile is melancholic.

The second theory is the Doctrine of Signatures. This theory comes from the Bible, stating that God gave Man lower creatures for Man to use for his benefit. Man uses many creatures for sustenance, and many creatures for labor. Other non-edible creatures on Earth should be used as ingredients in medicines. For example, Lungwort is good for the lungs, and Eyebright will clear the eyesight.

The third theory, astrology, has been signs and planet orbits of a patient's birthday to determine the severity and duration of an illness. The fourth theory is the traditional approach to medicine. This theory states that illness is a foreign presence in the body; the expropriation of the forging presence is the key to treatment. For example, an exorcism is necessary for mental illness, a King's touch is a cure for scrofula, tuberculosis in the neck, and toads are a cure for warts.

The fifth theory uses chemical science, in which newly discovered pure substances and non-organic materials were pressed into medical service, such as tobacco and mercury. The sixth theory deals with magic. In days, the dividing line between magic and legitimate medical practice was extremely blurred. Magic seemed perfectly logical and even scientific to an Elizabethan.

The most common cleansing agent used was vinegar, which was applied to most wounds to prevent from infection. The only cure for toothache was having the tooth pulled, which did not include the use of any anesthetics. Bubonic Plague was treated by applying warm butter, onion, and garlic to the bubo. Other various remedies for the plague were tried, including tobacco, arsenic, lily root, and dried toad. Head pains were treated with sweet-smelling herbs such as sage, bay leaf, rose, and lavender. Stomach pains were treated with wormwood, mint, and balm. Lung problems were treated with licorice and comfrey. These are all specific examples of treatments for common complication in the Elizabethan era.

An important benefit of all Elizabethan medicine is the confirmation of the placebo effect. The belief in one's treatment excites the patient's optimism and hopes, which is often the most important part of the recovery process. This is probably the most prevalent, underlying secret to Elizabethan medicine, whether the medical practitioners and patients knew it or not. The great variety of specialists, learned physicians, and magicians and all their ideas and beliefs, including the bodily Humors, the Doctrine of Signatures, astrology, tradition, chemical science, and magic, is important reason why everybody did not die in unsanitary, Bubonic Plagued, rat-infested, and garbage-filled Elizabethan England.

 Chapter 5.

Cures from Medieval England:

For toothache:

Take a candle and burn it close to the tooth. The worms that are gnawing the tooth will fall out into a cup of water held by the mouth.

The cause of the Black Death according to Guy de Chauliac, a French doctor:

Three great planets, Saturn, Jupiter and Mars, are all in close position. This took place in 1345. Such a coming together of planets is always a sign of wonderful, terrible or violent things to come.

For evil spirits in the head:

For this, surgeons used trepanning. This was where a surgeon cut a hole into the skull to release evil spirits trapped in the brain. The operation might also include cutting out the part of the brain that had been ‘infected’ with these evil spirits. Incredibly, people are known to have survived operations such as these as skulls have been found which show bone growth around the hole cut by a surgeon – a sign that someone did survive such an operation if only for awhile.

For general illnesses:

People were told that a pilgrimage to a holy shrine to show your love of God would cure them of illnesses especially if they had some holy water sold at the place of pilgrimage. After the death of Thomas Becket in 1170, Canterbury Cathedral became a place of pilgrimage which brought even more wealth to the city. However, more people coming to the city also increased the risk of disease being brought in.

Blood letting:

This was when blood was drained from a certain spot in your body. The idea behind this was similar to trepanning in that it released bad blood from your body. The use of leeches was common for this but dirty knives were also used which only increased the risk to the patient.

Cauterisation:

This was where a physician identified that a certain part of your body was ill and it was cured by having red hot pokers put on it.

Astrology:

Astrology played an important part in many cures. For fever, one medicine book stated "A man suffering from fever should be bled immediately the moon passes through the middle of the sign of Gemini."

Conclusion.

So. We can sum up: Medicine in England became better from year to year. . Health and medicine in Medieval England were very important aspects of life. For many peasants in Medieval England, disease and poor health were part of their daily life and medicines were both basic and often useless. Towns and cities were filthy and knowledge of hygiene was non-existent. King and Queens took care of their cities and didn’t want people to die. Between 1536 and 1544, one would have to search far and wide for medical help, and there was absolutely no help for indigent people in the city of London. In 1569, royal hospitals were finally restored, including Christ's Hospital for Children, St. Mary's of Bethlem for mental cases, and general hospitals such as St. Bartholomew's and St. Thomas'. However, hospitals were not the only options for a sick individual. Queen Elizabeth I's reign (1558-1603) brought the restoration of general charity, and there were many types of professionals and individuals to turn to for seeking medicals attention. As a result of this broad spectrum of medical choices, a mixture of the theory of Humors, the Doctrine of Signatures, astrology, tradition, chemical science, and magic became the basis for popular medicine in Elizabethan England. (The Black Death was to kill 2/3rds of England’s population between 1348 and 1340.) They were looking for different ways of recovery, even magic.  

Medicine in England has become the best one a lot of people would like to undergo cure in the country with highly developed medicine and England is a country where people can get a highly qualified treatment.

Literature:

Bynum, W F., and Roy Porter. Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine. London: Routledge,1993.

Holmes, Martin, Elizabethan London. London: Praeger, 1969.

Kiple, Kenneth F. The Cambridge World History of Human Disease. New York City: Cambridge UP, 1993

McGrew, Robert E., comp. Encyclopedia of Medical History. McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1985.

Pritchard, R E. Shakespeare's England: Life in Elizabethan & Jacobean Times.